GMPV9.3

Pyroclastic density current (PDC) interactions with ice are common at high altitude and latitude stratovolcanoes. When PDCs propagate over ice, melt and steam are generated. The incorporation of melt and steam into PDCs can alter the flow dynamics by reducing friction at the particle-ice interface and between individual particles. Melt incorporation can also transform a PDC into an ice-melt lahar. The hazardous and temporally unpredictable nature of these flows limits field observations. Conceptual models of PDC-ice interactions for hazard assessment and modelling exist, but quantifications of the microscale physical processes that underpin these interactions are limited. We use experiments to characterise the melting and friction reduction that occur when PDCs are emplaced onto ice.

In experiment set one, a heated particle layer was rapidly emplaced onto a horizontal ice layer contained within an insulated beaker 7.3 cm in diameter. The particle types used were glass ballotini, crushed pumice, and Ruapehu PDC samples, covering a diverse range of grain characteristics. The particle layer was varied in thickness up to 45 mm and across temperatures up to 700 °C. In each experiment, the mass of melt and steam were quantified, and the time evolution of temperature through the particle layer was measured.

Across all particle types, increasing particle layer mass (therefore layer thickness) and temperature increased melt and steam production. However, Ruapehu and pumice melt masses showed greater sensitivity than ballotini to particle temperature for any given layer thickness. Conversely, steam production was greater for the ballotini for any given layer thickness and was more sensitive to ballotini particle temperature.

Localised steam escape, fluidisation, capillary action, and particle sinking, were observed to varying extents in the experiments. These phenomena caused melt to be incorporated into the particle layer. The rate of increase in melt generation decreases with increasing particle layer thickness. This is due to increasing steam production, the increasing temperature of incorporated meltwater, energy losses to the atmosphere, and alterations to the bulk particle diffusivity.

Experiment set two characterised the mobility of particles over frozen and non-frozen substrates. Pumice and Ruapehu particles of varying temperature and layer thickness were poured into a 4.5 cm diameter alumina tube, which was rapidly lifted, allowing the particles to radially spread over the substrate. This configuration has been widely studied in experiments on granular flow mobility. The initial and final aspect ratios of the particle layer were measured, and conform to a power-law form previously interpreted as showing that frictional interactions are only important in the final stages of flow emplacement. Enhanced particle layer mobility over ice was only observed for Ruapehu particles above 400 °C, which we interpret to be due to fluidisation of the particles by rising steam. This is consistent with experiment set one, where Ruapehu particles produced more steam than pumice, and were often fluidised above 400 °C.

Experimental data will be used to calibrate surface flow hazard models for PDC runout and lahar generation, enabling prediction of PDC-ice interaction hazards. These models will be tested at Mt. Ruapehu, New Zealand. 

How to cite: Vale, A., Phillips, J., Rust, A., and Kilgour, G.: Pyroclastic Density Currents Over Ice: An Experimental Investigation of Microphysical Heat Transfer Processes, EGU General Assembly 2022, Vienna, Austria, 23–27 May 2022, EGU22-10267, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu22-10267, 2022.

Volcanoes can generate pyroclastic material that is deposited on ice and snow surfaces. However, a range of particle properties and spatial distribution of layer thicknesses are associated with deposition of volcanic material¹. This can modify the thermodynamic behaviour and optical properties of clean ice. Typically, thin layers of particles (i.e. in ‘dirty’ ice conditions) can increase ice ablation, whilst thick layers of particles (i.e. in ‘debris-covered’ conditions) can hinder ablation². Therefore, the state of ice is an important control on the energy balance of an ice system. 20.4% of Earth’s known Holocene volcanoes are associated with glacier or permanent snow cover³, and so it is crucial to understand how volcanic material interacts with ice systems to (1) better understand the evolution of debris-covered and dirty ice in general and (2) forecast future ice-melt scenarios at individual ice-covered volcanoes.

We present laboratory experiments that systematically reviewed the impact of volcanic particles of a range of compositions and properties (e.g. thermal conductivity, diameter, density, and albedo) on ice. Experiments assessed single particles and a scattering of particles on optically transparent and opaque ice, subjected to visible light illumination from a light emitting diode in a system analogous to dirty ice. Automated time-lapse images and in-person observations captured the response of particles and ice to radiation. Particles investigated included trachy-andesitic cemented ash particles from Eyjafjallajökull (Iceland), basaltic-andesitic scoria from Volcán Sollipulli (Chile), and rhyolitic pumice from Mount St. Helens (USA).

The experiments provided insight into some of the processes associated with volcanic particle interaction with ice. Results demonstrated that all volcanic particles with varying albedos induced ice melt and drove convection systems within the meltwater. This convection resulted in indirect heating beyond the immediate margins of the particles. The particles additionally lost finer grained fragments to meltwater, further driving ice melt through the addition of multiple absorbing surfaces within the ice system. This demonstrated that volcanic particles have the capability to melt ice very effectively in dirty ice conditions. In all experiments, the particles had a low thermal conductivity (relative to ice), although the density differed between particle types. Our experiments showed that the porosity and density of a volcanic particle can dictate the behaviour of particle-ice interaction; a dense particle can melt downwards through the ice (in similarity with the behaviour of iron-based meteorites⁴), whilst a less dense particle can become buoyant in meltwater, resulting in an extensive area of surface melt.

1. Möller et al. (2018), Earth Syst. Sci. Data, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-10-53-2018

2. Fyffe et al. (2020), Earth Surf. Process. Landforms, DOI: 10.1002/esp.4879

3. Curtis and Kyle (2017), Journal of Volc. And Geo. Research http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2017.01.017

4. Evatt et al. (2016), Nature Comms., DOI: 10.1038/ncomms10679

How to cite: Reeves, K., Gilbert, J., Lane, S., and Leeson, A.: The role of volcanic particle thermal conductivity, density, and porosity in influencing ice melt., EGU General Assembly 2022, Vienna, Austria, 23–27 May 2022, EGU22-8774, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu22-8774, 2022.

Many (~250) volcanoes worldwide are occupied by glaciers. This can be problematic for volcano monitoring, since glacier ice potentially masks evidence of volcanic activity. However, some of the most devastating and costly volcanic eruptions of the last 100 years involved volcano-glacier interactions (e.g. Nevado del Ruiz 1985, Eyjafjallajökull 2010). Therefore, improving methods for monitoring glacier-covered volcanoes is of clear societal benefit. Optical satellite remote sensing datasets and techniques are perhaps most promising, since they frequently have a relatively high temporal and spatial resolution and are often freely available. These sources often show the effects of volcanic activity on glaciers, including ice cauldron formation, ice fracturing, and glacier terminus changes. In this study, we use satellite sources to investigate possible links between volcanic activity and changes in glacier velocity. Despite some studies reporting periods of glacier acceleration triggered by volcanic unrest, the potential of using the former to monitor the latter has yet to be investigated. Our approach is to observe how glacier surface velocity responded to past volcanic events in Alaska and Chile by applying feature-tracking, mostly using optical satellite imagery. The overall aim is to systematically track changes in the glacier velocity, with hope of improving volcano monitoring and eruption prediction. 

How to cite: Martin, M., Barr, I., Edwards, B., Symeonakis, E., and Spagnolo, M.: Volcanically-triggered changes in glacier surface velocity, EGU General Assembly 2022, Vienna, Austria, 23–27 May 2022, EGU22-3569, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu22-3569, 2022.

Tuyas are basaltic to intermediate glaciovolcanic edifices, formed in a body of meltwater within an ice sheet, in an ocean or a lake. The most common tuya stratigraphy consist of a lowermost layer or a mound of pillow lava, overlain by hyaloclastite tuffs and capped by a layer of subaerially-formed, horizontally bedded, lava flows. The parts of the lava flows more distant from the vent are built on flow-foot breccias, with the transition from subaerially-formed lava flows and breccias being a distinct stratigraphic boundary: the passage zone. The elevation of the passage zone marks the water level in the englacial lake into which the evolving tuya was built. At many locations the elevation of the passage zone appears to vary considerably from one location on a tuya to another. Some tuyas are elongated. One idea is that the elongation is predominantly in the direction of ice flow at the time of eruption.

By studying tuyas through aerial photography, satellite imagery and ground observations, the edifices variations in the elevation of the passage zone can be studied. This provides information on the eruption processes and environmental conditions at the time of formation.  We have analyzed the variation of passage zone elevation with distance along strike of a selected set of tuyas in Iceland. These include Bláfjall, located in Northern Iceland. It was formed within a Pleistocene ice sheet a continuous, prolonged eruption, or in a series of eruptions, closely spaced in time. The lava cap reaches a maximum thickness of approximately 100 m but is only a few meters to a few tens of meters thick on average, showing clear signs of influence from the ice sheet. Apparently, both the thickness of the ice sheet and the direction of ice flow direction exerted major control on the height and elongation of the Bláfjall tuya. The eruption took place well to the north of the ice divide at the time, and the flow of ice was predominantly from south to north, with the elongated structure of the tuya oriented parallel to the flow of the ancient glacier. The thickness of the lava cap is greatest in the north part and generally decreases towards south. This is despite the fact that the elevation of the mountain increases southwards. This indicates that the northern part is mostly formed by an advancing lava delta, propagating in the direction of ice flow and that the level of the water body present at the end of the advancing lava delta become progressively lower towards north. This suggests a sloping ice sheet at the time of formation, or possibly a receding ice sheet, leading to gradual thinning with time as the eruption progressed.   

How to cite: Sigurbergsdóttir, A. M. and Gudmundsson, M. T.: The Bláfjall tuya in North Iceland, morphological characteristics and effect of ice flow and icesheet slope on edifice form , EGU General Assembly 2022, Vienna, Austria, 23–27 May 2022, EGU22-8641, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu22-8641, 2022.

Gjálp is a hyaloclastite ridge situated beneath the western part of the ~8000 km² Vatnajökull ice cap, located midway between the subglacial calderas of Grímsvötn and Bárdabunga volcanoes. The tephra erupted at Gjálp has affinities fitting with the Grímsvötn volcanic system while the associated seismicity and unrest preceding the eruption suggest that the eruption was caused by lateral magma flow from Bárdarbunga.  Eruptions occurred at Gjálp in 1938 and 1996 but only the 1996 eruption is thought to have broken through the ice. The 1996 eruption was first detected on the 30^th of September at about 22:00 GMT by the onset of seismic tremor; the following day heavily crevassed ice cauldrons were noticed. Around 30 hours after detection of the tremor the eruption broke through the ice sheet. The eruption lasted for 13 days, during which a 6-7 km long subglacial, hyaloclastite ridge was formed. The subglacial eruption melted large volumes of ice that accumulated within the Grímsvötn caldera until early November, when it was released in a major jökulhlaup, destroying bridges and damaging roads. In comparison with the subglacial eruption the subaerial part was relatively modest. The style of activity was mostly Surtseyan and the tephra erupted is mildly intermediate in composition.

The tephra fall began on October 2 and continued intermittently until October 13. The first tephra was seen at 05:18 on October 2. By 08:50 the largest explosions threw tephra about 1 km above the ice surface and the plume rose to 4-4.5 km above sea level. This tephra was carried north and north-northeast across North and Central Iceland and was detected as far as 250 km from source. On October 3 the plume was reported to have reached 8-9 km a.s.l. Tephra was also dispersed to the east and south and most of the tephra accumulated on the Vatnajökull glacier. During the eruption, repeated snow fall caused layering within the tephra deposit. In the following year samples were collected from the tephra fall area on the glacier. These consist mostly of snow cores with tephra thickness ranging from dm to mm. The samples were processed to estimate the tephra volume and to create a dispersal and isopach map. The tephra layer deposited on the glacier is volumetrically only a few percent of the bulk volume (~0.7 km³) of the subglacial ridge formed in the 1996 eruption.

How to cite: Jóngeirsdóttir, I. G., Gudmundsson, M. T., and Larsen, G.: Tephra layer formed in the 1996 eruption of Gjálp, Iceland, EGU General Assembly 2022, Vienna, Austria, 23–27 May 2022, EGU22-8667, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu22-8667, 2022.

Eruptions where glacier ice has a significant effect on the style of activity occur in some parts of the world, notably the Andes, Alaska, parts of Antarctica and Iceland.  Due to its northerly latitude and considerable ice cover within the volcanically active zones, about 50% of all eruptions in Iceland occur within glaciers, which is about 15 such eruptions per century.  In the last 25 years, six such confirmed eruptions have taken place while only one minor confirmed eruption occurred in the period 1938-1996.  This is due to the episodic nature of activity in the volcanoes covered by the 7900 km² Vatnajökull ice cap, with a new period of high activity starting with the Gjálp eruption of 1996.   Contemporary observations have therefore provided considerable empirical data on these events.  These data include glacier thickness prior to eruptions, ice cauldron development, glacier flow perturbations, melting rates and transitions from fully subglacial to explosive/partly subaerial eruptions.  In addition, some data exist that constrains the volcano-ice interaction in the eruptions of Katla in 1918, Grímsvötn in 1934 and 1983, Gjálp in 1938 and Hekla in 1947.  The majority of these events were basaltic.  However, at least two eruptions that had an initial fully subglacial phase (Gjálp 1996, Eyjafjallajökull 2010) were of intermediate composition.  The volume of subglacially-erupted magma ranged from a few million m³ to 0.45 km³ (DRE), initial ice thicknesses ranging from 50 to 750 m, and melted ice volumes between 0.01 km³ to 4 km³.  Combined, the data from the eruptions of the last 100+ years, provides important constraints on heat transfer rates, the rate of penetration of eruptions through ice, glacier response to eruption, and the potential for generation of jökulhlaups and lahars.  Post-eruption observations in Grímsvötn have revealed that craters formed in eruptions that break through the glacial cover can be partly built on ice.  These tend to be highly transient features due subsequent melting and ice movement.  Surface melting of ice by pyroclastic density currents has occurred in Iceland, but this type of activity has in the recent past mostly been confined to the occasional sub-Plinian to Plinian eruptions in e.g. Hekla volcano.   However, there are indications that such activity has played an important role in some relatively rare large Plinian eruptions at ice covered volcanoes in Iceland, as observed in e.g. Alaska and the Andes.

How to cite: Gudmundsson, M. T., Högnadóttir, T., Magnússon, E., Reynolds, H. I., Larsen, G., and Pálsson, F.: Volcano-ice interaction:  The empirical constraints derived from eruptions in Iceland in the period 1918-2015, EGU General Assembly 2022, Vienna, Austria, 23–27 May 2022, EGU22-12717, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu22-12717, 2022.