Exploring the relationships among ecosystem services and their drivers in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban agglomeration

Understanding the relationships among multiple ecosystem services and their drivers is crucial for the sustainability of ecosystem services provision. Different ecosystem services were quantified using different models, and the relationships among ecosystem services and their drivers were analyzed using different statistical methods in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban agglomeration. Our results showed that the spatially concordant supply of regulating services and cultural services decreased from northwest to southeast, whereas the delivery of provisioning services decreased from southeast to northwest in the region. The provisioning service was  antagonistic with both the regulating services and the cultural service, and the relationships among the regulating services and the cultural service were mostly synergistic. Different combinations of ecosystems provided seven types of ecosystem services bundles with different compositions and quantities of ecosystem services. Different drivers had different impacts on different ecosystem services. On the basis of  our findings, we suggested that the features of ecosystem service relationships and their drivers should be considered to ensure the efficiency of the  management of natural capital.