Using ecosystem service bundles to evaluate spatial and temporal impacts of large-scale landscape restoration on ecosystem services on the Chinese Loess Plateau

From 1999 onwards, China has initiated a large-scale landscape restoration project on the Chinese Loess Plateau, which has had profound but variable impacts on the local ecosystem services supply. In this study, we evaluate the spatial and temporal dynamics in 11 ecosystem services in the Yan’an area on the Chinese Loess Plateau from 1990 to 2018 based on the InVEST model and statistical yearbook data. To consider trade-offs and synergies between ecosystem services, the concept of ecosystem service bundles was used to understand the dynamics of ecosystem services. A significant increase of fruit production, sediment retention, habitat quality, aesthetic landscape value as well as learning and inspiration value was found over time in Yan’an area, while a decrease of timber production and water yield was also observed. Synergistic relations were found between sediment retention, carbon sequestration, habitat quality and outdoor recreation, while trade-offs were observed between timber production and water yield. The majority of ecosystem services bundles of Yan’an area were transformed from having a focus on timber production to aesthetic landscape value. The dynamics of ecosystem services change by land restoration was discovered, to start with increasing regulating services at expense of provisioning services, cultural services exceeding regulating services and occupied the main proportion subsequently. The most obvious change was observed in 2000, coinciding with the start of large-scale restoration activities. The implementation of the large-scale restoration project is recognized as a key driving force inducing these changes. Based on the results, it is recommended that the Yan’an government pays attention to local water resource management and timber supply.