Improving water-related ecosystem services to developing country communities through nature-based solutions

The political, economic, social, technological, environmental, and legal (PESTEL) dimensions in a local community shape the adoption of specific nature-based solutions (NbS) to improve water ecosystem services. This study provides crucial insights on integrating NbS tailored to smallholder indigenous and peasant communities in four central Ecuadorian provinces, covering 43.2% of the Andean region. These communities are located in the páramo, a highly valued ecosystem for water-related ecosystem services. However, they face high levels of poverty and malnutrition. Combining a participatory multi-stakeholder approach with a literature review, we gathered insights into PESTEL dimensions impacting páramo ecosystem services. A bibliometric and decision tree analysis was then employed to reveal NbS aligned with PESTEL dimensions in these communities. As a result, limited financial support, urban-centric environmental investment, and insufficient acknowledgment of water-related ecosystem services significantly impact the health of páramo ecosystems from economic and political dimensions, respectively. In the environmental dimension, the overexploitation of this ecosystem, driven by high soil carbon storage combined with superior water quality and the high vulnerability to climate change, contributes to the decline of the páramo remnants. Social, legal, and technological dimensions involve community dissatisfaction and resistance to conservation, lack of sustainable land and water management, and the mismatch between technology, the economy, and data availability. These impacts on páramo ecosystem services occur directly through water purification, regulating soil formation, and maintaining populations and habitats. Indirectly, they affect the provision of water for drinking and non-drinking purposes, fishing and aquaculture, recreation, and spiritual and symbolic appreciation. To enhance water-related ecosystem services, we propose the establishment of artificial floating islands such as NbS. These islands are seen as an innovative restoration method with multiple benefits, such as the need for only limited financial support, the engagement of local communities, the lack of land requirements for implementation, and the use of indigenous community knowledge of appropriate plant species for water treatment, which can even generate additional income. Passive restoration complements this by removing disturbances in the páramo, allowing natural regeneration in basins by state-led land purchase initiatives to ensure the protection by Ecuadorian conservation laws. Our study offers decision-makers a practical approach to secure ecosystem services for vulnerable populations, critically assessing alternatives based on the dimensions and needs of these communities.