Assessing Flood Vulnerability and Maladaptive Effects Associated with Embankment-Based Flood Control Infrastructure : Hydrogeomorphic and Socioeconomic Analysis Kosi River Embankment Region, Bihar, India.

Floods impact natural and human systems from multiple dimensions. The vulnerability to flood consequences is intricately linked to the hydrogeomorphic and socio-economic properties of the region. In a long run flood control infrastructure such as embankments evolve with the hydrogeomorphic and socio-economic properties and co produce the new set of vulnerabilities. Assessment of maladaptive contribution of flood control infrastructure is crucial in adaptive decision making and building resilience.The study analyzed flood vulnerability of the population residing inside the embankment area of the Kosi River basin from multidisciplinary parameters. The Kosi River embankment area covers around 890 Sq Km area and is home to nearly 0.8 million people who are facing a trifecta of issues, including regular flooding, scarcity of basic amenities, and loss of livelihood. The basin went through numerous flood-related research based on geomorphology, hydrology, and other physical factors; however, the flood impact assessment of embankments and its role within the socioeconomic dimension still needs to be explored. The present study unpacks flood vulnerability in 283 villages located within the Kosi embankment. Drawing upon thirteen attributes—comprising eight socio-economic and five hydro-geomorphic parameters—the analysis incorporates data from Sentinel-2, IMD, FMIS, the 2011 census report, and other pertinent survey reports. The study utilized analytical hierarchical process (AHP) to obtain relative priority order of parameters. Through the application of GIS analysis, we systematically formulated exhaustive vulnerability maps encapsulating socio-economic, hydrogeomorphic, and composite dimensions based on the weightage assigned to the selected parameters. The analysis highlights that nearly the entire population in the embankment region is susceptible to the effects of flooding, with ∼66% of the region having high and very high flood risk and ∼26% in areas with moderate risk. Furthermore, the outcomes reveal the maladaptive consequences of infrastructure solutions, manifesting as socio-economic disparities and exclusionary effects. The population living inside the embankment region exhibit notably impoverished socio-economic characteristics,including 32 % female literacy, approximately 90 houses constructed by  around 90 percent of houses are Kachha ( mud house), and highly rely on farm labor activities, which is highly lower than the region outside the embankment. Additionally, the outcomes bring to light the maladaptive consequences of infrastructure solutions, manifesting as socio-economic disparities and exclusionary effects. Residents within the embankment area exhibit notably impoverished socio-economic indicators, including a 32% female literacy rate, approximately 90% of houses are Katchha ( made from mud and straw), and economic dependency on agriculture labor activities, which is significantly lower than outside of the embankment. Moreover, the annual flood and longer periods of waterlogging cut off the population from other parts of the state. Lastly, the study discussed the source of vulnerability and adaptation options, which could be useful in developing comprehensive flood adaptation programs, including socioeconomic considerations.