Evaporation and sublimation measurement and modelling of an alpine saline lake influenced by freeze–thaw on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau

 Saline lakes on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau (QTP) affect the regional climate and water cycle through water loss (E, evaporation under ice–free and sublimation under ice–covered conditions). Due to the observation difficulty over lakes, E and its underlying driving forces are seldom studied targeting saline lakes on the QTP, particularly during the ice–covered periods (ICP). In this study, The E of Qinghai Lake (QHL) and its influencing factors during the ice–free periods (IFP) and ICP were first quantified based on six years of observations. Subsequently, three models were calibrated and compared in simulating E during the IFP and ICP from 2003 to 2017. The annual E sum of QHL is 768.58 ± 28.73 mm, and the E sum during the ICP reaches 175.22 ± 45.98 mm, accounting for 23% of the annual E sum. E is mainly controlled by the wind speed, vapor pressure difference, and air pressure during the IFP, but is driven by the net radiation, the difference between the air and lake surface temperatures, wind speed, and ice coverage during the ICP. The mass transfer model simulates lake E well during the IFP, and the model based on energy achieves a good simulation during the ICP. Moreover, wind speed weakening resulted in an 7.56% decrease in E during the ICP of 2003~2017. Our results highlight the importance of E in ICP, provide new insights into saline lake E in alpine regions, and can be used as a reference to further improve hydrological models of alpine lakes.