Field Studies of Feldspar-Assisted Snowmaking: Effects on Snow Volume, Density, and Reflectivity

Under most atmospheric conditions, snowfall is triggered by the freezing of supercooled water droplets in clouds through heterogeneous nucleation on airborne particles. Among the most efficient atmospheric ice-nucleating particles, capable of inducing freezing at temperatures only a few degrees below 0 °C, are feldspar minerals. Certain feldspars are known to initiate ice nucleation very efficiently at relatively warm subzero temperatures [1], which has led to their application in snowmaking [2] and controlled freezing processes [3].

In our group, we study the properties of snow produced with the aid of feldspar ice-nucleating particles under real environmental conditions at a Snow Laboratory located in the La Molina ski resort (Spain). In this work, we present results from field studies conducted during the 2022–2023 and 2023–2024 snow seasons. The Snow Lab consists of two technically identical and independent snow guns installed 25 m apart (see Figure a). Snow was produced under varying environmental conditions. In one snow gun, only reservoir water was used, while in the second gun a feldspar powder with high ice-nucleating efficiency [4] was added to the water supply.

The volume and physical properties of the produced snow, including density and reflectivity, were systematically compared between snow generated with and without feldspar additives. Three-dimensional maps of snow volume and physical properties were constructed from a grid of field measurements. The results show that, for the same amount of water, a larger volume of snow is produced when feldspar particles are introduced. In addition, feldspar-assisted snow exhibits lower surface density and higher reflectivity, indicating a modified crystallographic evolution of ice crystals as water exits the snow gun (see an example in Figure b).

These findings not only demonstrate the potential of feldspar additives to improve the efficiency and sustainability of artificial snowmaking, but also provide valuable insight into the crystallization pathways of supercooled water droplets in the presence of mineral ice-nucleating particles in natural and engineered environments.

Figure: (a) Images of the Snow Laboratory at La Molina. (b) Example snow density maps obtained with and without the use of feldspar additives.

[1] Kanji, Z. A., Ladino, L. A., Wex, H., Boose, Y., Burkert-Kohn, M., Cziczo, D. J., and Krämer, M.: Overview of Ice Nucleating Particles, Am. Meteorol. Soc., 58, 1.1-1.33, https://doi.org/10.1175/amsmonographs-d-16-0006.1, 2017.

[2] ]. Patent: “Artificial Snow Making Method And Product For Implementing The Method “ A. Verdaguer and M. Galvin https://uspto.report/patent/app/20190323753

[3] Daily, M. I., Whale, T. F., Kilbride, P., Lamb, S., John Morris, G., Picton, H. M., and Murray, B. J.: A highly active mineral-based ice nucleating agent supports in situ cell cryopreservation in a high throughput format, J. R. Soc. Interface, 20, 20220682, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2022.0682, 2023

[4] Canet, J., Rodríguez, L., Renzer, G., Alfonso, P., Bonn, M., Meister, K., Garcia-Valles, M., Verdaguer, A.: Measurement report: Ice nucleation ability of perthite feldspar powder, EGU [preprint], https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-5014, December 2025.