Identifying threats of the volcanic geoheritage in the Teide National Park (Tenerife, Spain) based on visitor’s use

Teide National Park (TNP), declared in 1954, is one of Spain’s 16 national parks. It covers 189.9 km² and ranges from 1,600 to 3,718 m a.s.l. Its volcanic landscape results from eruptions of mafic to felsic magmas, with eruptive styles from Hawaiian to sub‑Plinian. The park hosts a wide variety of volcanic geoforms—such as a large caldera of debated origin, the active stratovolcanoes Teide and Pico Viejo, numerous domes, monogenetic basaltic cones, hornitos, dikes, and diverse lava flows (ʻAʻā, pāhoehoe, blocky, and obsidian). Lava tubes, lava channels, and other minor morphologies are also present, along with non-volcanic features produced by torrential processes, hillslope dynamics, landslides, subsidence, glacial and periglacial activity, aeolian processes, and historical quarrying. In addition to its natural heritage, TNP preserves important cultural elements, including archaeological remains and traditional agricultural and pastoral uses, as well as current activities such as beekeeping.

TNP is the most visited protected natural area in Spain, with an annual average exceeding 3 million visitors; in 2025, visitation surpassed 5 million. The aim of this study is to relate the volcanic geoheritage to TNP’s use zoning as a first step toward identifying threats derived from visitor pressure. For this purpose, the geomorphosites defined in TNP’s four geomorphological units—Teide–Pico Viejo, Las Cañadas wall, Las Cañadas courtyard, and the monogenetic volcanic field—were analysed according to their zoning categories (reserve, restricted, and moderate use).

A total of 23 geomorphosites were identified: 8 in Teide–Pico Viejo, 4 in Las Cañadas wall, 6 in the courtyard, and 5 in the volcanic field. Of these, 5 fall within reserve zones (Pico Viejo crater, Fortaleza, Diego Hernández Cañada, Las Cañadas taluses, and the Fasnia historical eruption), where no recreational use is allowed; therefore, no conflicts exist. Thirteen geomorphosites lie within restricted use zones (including Teide, Chahorra, Guajara, Los Gemelos, Montaña Blanca, Montaña Rajada, the Roques Blancos and Pico Cabras domes, Montaña Negra, obsidian lavas, and Corrales volcano). Here, visitor impact is limited because access is confined to established trails; however, some sites (notably Samara and Guajara) receive visitor levels that may threaten their integrity.

The greatest pressures occur in the five geomorphosites located in moderate-use areas (Mostaza cone, Roques de García, Llano de Ucanca, the eastern volcanic field, and Guamasa cone), where pedestrian access is unrestricted and regulated vehicle traffic is still permitted. Among these, mass visitation has the most significant impacts at Roques de García, and to a lesser extent at Llano de Ucanca and the viewpoints of the eastern volcanic field.

Mass visitation has been a concern for managers and scientists for years. At the end of 2025, a new management plan was approved that restricts private vehicle access and prioritizes sustainable mobility. However, it does not directly address the core issue: the concentration of visitors at specific sites and times. Therefore, scientific studies focused on the geoconservation of TNP’s volcanic geoheritage are essential, as they can serve as key reference documents for the management of both natural and cultural heritage.