Restoration effects on forest soil carbon dynamics and overall soil health: a management perspective

Forest soils and their carbon stocks are essential for ecosystem functioning, yet degradation from human and natural disturbances continues to compromise soil structure, nutrient cycling, biological activity, and ultimately carbon persistence. Forest restoration offers an opportunity to rebuild soil functions and protect carbon, but large-scale assessments of its effects on soil health in European forests remain limited, and the relationships between restoration and multiple soil properties are poorly understood. To address this gap, we conducted a topsoil sampling campaign across 11 European regions within the SUPERB restoration network (2022–2023), including stands classified by local experts as degraded, under restoration, and reference. We analyzed soil carbon alongside chemical, physical, and biological indicators. Our results reveal substantial variability across regions and stand types, with no consistent trends along restoration stages and potential trade-offs between carbon sequestration and other aspects of soil health. These findings highlight that restoration outcomes cannot be generalized and that effective strategies must account for local soil conditions, vegetation history, and management practices.