Environmental Legacies of Armed Conflict: Soil Contamination and Citizen Participation

Armed conflicts generate long-lasting environmental disturbances, with soils acting as critical sinks for toxic residues such as heavy metals and phosphorus. Soil contamination directly affects environmental and human health through exposure pathways linked to food production, soil fertility, and downstream water systems. While military training ranges have been extensively studied, contamination dynamics in recently bombarded civilian landscapes remain poorly documented. This study addresses this gap by documenting soil contamination in South Lebanon following the 2023–present conflict. A community-driven sampling strategy was implemented across bombed villages, engaging 85 local participants to ensure safe and representative coverage under restricted access conditions. A total of 200 soil samples were collected and analyzed for total and reactive phosphorus, as well as cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and nickel (Ni). Laboratory analyses were conducted with dual-lab verification at the American University of Beirut and the Lebanese University to ensure data reliability under constrained analytical conditions. Results revealed elevated concentrations of Ni (up to 228 mg/kg) and Cd (up to 9 mg/kg), exceeding WHO soil guideline values, while Pb, Cu, and Zn were closer to background levels but exhibited localized hotspots. Reactive phosphorus concentrations indicated inputs consistent with excessive fertilization, reflecting residues associated with white phosphorus munitions. These patterns indicate heterogeneous, hotspot-dominated contamination rather than uniform spatial gradients. The enrichment of Ni and Cd above health thresholds points to acute ecological and human health risks through soil–food–water exposure pathways, while phosphorus residues highlight additional stress on soil quality and downstream aquatic systems. Overall, this study demonstrates how adapted sampling methodologies, community participation, and dual-laboratory verification can generate robust soil quality indicators in conflict-affected environments, supporting soil health risk assessment, monitoring, and remediation strategies relevant to sustainable soil management and human health protection.