Climate-human-landscape interaction in the eastern foothills of Songshan Mountain, Central China since the terminal Pleistocene

The past decades have seen an upsurge in the paleoenvironmental studies of Chinese archaeological sites. However, systematic investigations on human-environment interactions in river valleys are still rare in Central China and thus require further study. Here, we reconstruct the landscape evolution of the Shuangji River valley in the eastern foothills of Songshan Mountain and its relationship with climate change and human settlement patterns since the terminal Pleistocene. From 50 ka BP to the terminal Paleolithic, under cold climate conditions, approximately 20 m of fluvial-lacustrine sediments and loess-derived alluvium were deposited in the middle reaches of the river valley. A transition from fluvial-lacustrine to aeolian deposits occurred around 28 ka BP, accompanied by a decrease in deposition rate. Three stages of fluvial terraces were formed since the terminal Pleistocene. The formation of the third terrace (T3) was dated between 20~10 ka BP. It provided the ideal habitat for the last hunter-gatherers and early farmers through the terminal Paleolithic to early Neolithic. From 8 to 4 ka BP, the river valley aggraded under a warm and humid climate, while the second terrace (T2) formed slowly. Due to its suitability for human habitation, settlements gradually moved downstream and clustered on the alluvial valleys, associated with the change of subsistence strategy. After 4 ka BP, the climate aridity coincided with large-scale river downcutting, which led to the disappearance of lakes and swamps. This paralleled the emergence of urban settlements. The late Holocene valley incision and smaller-scale first terrace (T1) during the historical period shaped the present landscape. Our results contribute to a better understanding of the relationships between climate change, landscape evolution, and human settlement patterns in the cradle of Chinese civilization.