Time-lapse changes within the Groningen gas field caused reservoir by compaction and distant borehole drilling

Between 2013 and 2017, the Groningen gas field was monitored by several deployments of an array of geophones in a deep borehole at reservoir level (3 km). Zhou & Paulssen (2017) showed that the P- and S-velocity structure of the reservoir could be retrieved from noise interferometry by cross-correlation. Here we show that deconvolution interferometry of high-frequency train signals from a nearby railroad not only allows determination of the velocity structure with higher accuracy, but also enables time-lapse measurements. We found that the travel times within the reservoir decrease by a few tens of microseconds for two 5-month periods. The observed travel time decreases are associated to velocity increases caused by compaction of the reservoir. However, the uncertainties are relatively large. 
Striking is the large P-wave travel time anomaly (-0.8 ms) during a distinct period of time (17 Jul - 2 Sep 2015). It is only observed for inter-geophone paths that cross the gas-water contact (GWC) of the reservoir. The anomaly started 4 days after drilling into the reservoir of a new well at 4.5 km distance and ended 4 days after the drilling operations stopped. We did not find an associated S-wave travel time anomaly. This suggests that the anomaly is caused by a temporary elevation of the GWC (water replacing gas) of approximately 20 m. We suggest that the GWC is elevated due to pore-pressure variations during drilling. The 4-day delay corresponds to a pore-pressure diffusivity of ~5m²/s, which is in good agreement with the value found from material parameters and the diffusivity of (induced) seismicity for various regions in the world.