PS2.1

In situ composition measurements at Saturn and its moons (Cassini-Huygens^1,2) and at comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko (Rosetta^3,4) unveiled the complexity of the atmospheric chemical composition and high abundance of organic compounds in the environments of Solar System bodies. The deciphering of the measurements, obtained by current state-of-the-art instruments, to obtain the composition of complex gas mixtures that include polyatomic molecules and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) often requires having recourse to instrument response modeling supplemented by theoretical chemical models.

One of the limitations in currently flown mass spectrometers is their limited mass resolving power. High mass-resolving power offers the capability to identify unambiguously almost all complex organic compounds. Such technique offers identification of almost all complex organic compounds without application of complementary separation techniques, e.g. chromatography, spectroscopy or collision induced dissociation. A new generation of space mass spectrometers under development (MASPEX⁵, MULTUM⁶, CORALS⁷, CRATER⁷, among others), aims at reaching mass resolution of > 50 000. CORALS and CRATER are Orbitrap-based instruments using CosmOrbitrap elements.

In collaboration with J. Herovsky institute, the Laboratoire de Physique et de Chimie de l'Environnement et de l'Espace (LPC2E) has developed a new laboratory test-bench based on the Orbitrap™ technology OLYMPIA (Orbitrap anaLYseur MultiPle IonisAtion) to evaluate several space applications of an Orbitrap-based space instrument using different ionization techniques. OLYMPIA is a compact, transportable set-up and is intended to be used as a stand-alone device (currently with an EI ionization source), but later intended to be coupled to different sources of ions. The next step in the next few months is to couple it with the LLILBID set-up in Berlin⁸.

OLYMPIA is currently directly coupled with a first prototype of a compact electron impact ionization source. A single shot provides a useful signal duration of 200-250ms second before it decays to the noise level, and provide mass resolution for Kr ion isotopes of the order of 30 000 and on C₂H₄ on fragments of the order of 40 000. Kr is mostly being used to characterize the isotopic measurement capability of OLYMPIA and mixtures of C₂H₄, CO and N₂gases in different proportions.  In this presentation we concentrate on the capability to detect low ethylene lighter VOC concentration in different mixtures of CO and N₂. Sensitivity of the instrument is sufficient to detect traces of the carbon dioxide gas in mixture with molecular nitrogen abundant in less than 1% volume ratio.

1 Waite, J. H. et al. Space Sci. Rev. 114, 113–231 (2004)

2 Coates, A. J. et al. Geophys. Res. Lett. 34, (2007)

3 Balsiger, H. et al. Space Sci. Rev. 128, 745–801 (2007)

4 Le Roy, L. et al. A&A 583, (2015)

5 Brockwell, T. G. et al. in 2016 IEEE Aerospace Conference 1–17 (2016)

6 Shimma, S. et al. Anal. Chem. 82, 8456–8463 (2010)

7 Arevalo Jr, R. et al. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 32, 1875–1886 (2018)

8 Klenner, F. et al. Astrobiology 20, 179–189 (2019)

How to cite: Zymak, I., Sanderink, A., Gaubicher, B., Žabka, J., Lebreton, J.-P., and Briois, C.: OLYMPIA - a compact laboratory Orbitrap-based high-resolution mass spectrometer laboratory set-up: Performance studies for gas composition measurement in analogues of planetary environments, EGU General Assembly 2021, online, 19–30 Apr 2021, EGU21-8424, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu21-8424, 2021.

Cosmic rays cause ionisation in all planetary atmospheres. As they collide with particles in the atmosphere, secondary charged particles are produced that lead to the formation of cluster ions. The incident cosmic ray flux and atmospheric density of the atmosphere in question determine a profile of ion production rate. From the top of the atmosphere to the planetary surface, this rate increases with atmospheric density to a point where the flux becomes attenuated such that the rate then decreases, resulting in a peak ion production rate at some height known as the Pfotzer-Regener maximum. When these ions interact with aerosols and cloud particles, a net charge results on those particles and this is known to affect their microphysical attributes and behaviour. For example, charging may enable the activation of droplets at lower saturation ratios and also enhance collision efficiency and droplet growth. This becomes important when clouds occur at a height where ionisation is sufficient to have a substantive charging effect on the cloud particles. This has very little direct effect on Earth as peak ion production occurs high above the clouds at 15-20 km; however, on Venus for example the Pfotzer-Regener maximum occurs at ~63 km, coinciding with the main sulphuric acid cloud deck. In situations such as this, the direct result of cloud charging due to cosmic ray induced ionisation may strongly influence cloud processes, their occurrence, and behaviour.

This work uses laboratory experiments to explore the effects of charging on cloud droplets. Individual droplets are levitated in a vertical acoustic standing wave and then monitored using a CCD camera with a high magnification objective lens to determine the droplet lifetime and evaporation rate. Experiments were conducted using both the droplets’ naturally occurring charge as well as some where the region around the drop was initially flooded with ions from an external corona source. The polarity and charge magnitude of the droplets was determined by applying a 10 kV/m electric field horizontally across the drop and observing its deflection towards one of the electrodes. Theory predicts that the more highly charged a droplet is, the more resistant to evaporation it becomes. Experimental data collected during this study agrees with this, with more highly charged droplets observed to have slower evaporation rates. However, highly charged drops were also observed to periodically become unstable during evaporation and undergo Rayleigh explosions. This occurs when the droplet evaporates until its diameter becomes such that its fissility reaches the threshold at which the instability occurs. Each instability of a highly charged drop removes mass, reducing the overall droplet lifetime regardless of the slower evaporation rate. Therefore, where enhanced ionisation occurs in the presence of clouds the end result may be to reduce droplet stability.

How to cite: Airey, M., Harrison, G., Aplin, K., and Pfrang, C.: Effects of ionisation on cloud behaviour in planetary atmospheres, EGU General Assembly 2021, online, 19–30 Apr 2021, EGU21-13639, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu21-13639, 2021.

In the Martian atmosphere, carbon dioxide (CO₂) clouds have been revealed by numerous instruments around Mars from the beginning of the XXI century. These observed clouds can be distinguished by two kinds involving different formation processes: those formed during the winter in polar regions located in the troposphere, and those formed during the Martian year at low- and mid-northern latitudes located in the mesosphere (Määattänen et al, 2013). Microphysical processes of the formation of these clouds are still not fully understood. However, modeling studies revealed processes necessary for their formation: the requirement of waves that perturb the atmosphere leading to a temperature below the condensation of CO₂ (transient planetary waves for tropospheric clouds (Kuroda et al., 20123), thermal tides (Gonzalez-Galindo et al., 2011) and gravity waves for mesospheric clouds (Spiga et al., 2012)). In the last decade, a state-of-the-art microphysical column (1D) model for CO₂ clouds in a Martian atmosphere was developed at Laboratoire Atmosphères, Observations Spatiales (LATMOS) (Listowski et al., 2013, 2014). We use our full microphysical model of CO₂ cloud formation to investigate the occurrence of these CO₂ clouds by coupling it with the Global Climate Model (GCM) of the Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique (LMD) (Forget et al., 1999). We recently activated the radiative impact of CO₂ clouds in the atmosphere. Last modeling results on Martian CO₂ clouds properties and their impacts on the atmosphere will be presented and be compared to observational data.

How to cite: Mathé, C., Määttänen, A., Audouard, J., Listowski, C., Millour, E., Forget, F., Spiga, A., Bardet, D., Teinturier, L., Falletti, L., Vals, M., González-Galindo, F., and Montmessin, F.: Global 3D modelling of Martian CO2 clouds, EGU General Assembly 2021, online, 19–30 Apr 2021, EGU21-9457, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu21-9457, 2021.

Mars’ polar vortices play a mjaor role in determining the global-scale transport of trace gases and the composition of the polar caps. Potential vorticity (PV) is a key quantity in determining their dynamical and transport properties. Mars' winter polar vortices are annular in PV, a direct contrast to Earth’s stratospheric polar vortices, whose PV values increase monotonically towards the poles. Given that a ring of high PV is known to be barotropically unstable, the persistence of this phenomenon in observations, simulations and reanalyses is somewhat surprising. Condensation of atmospheric carbon dioxide at the winter pole has been shown to be necessary to maintain the annulus in Martian Global Circulation Models (MGCM). Dust is also known to be a cause of internal and interannual variability in the polar vortices, but given the relatively few years of observations available, it is not yet fully understood. Here we present results of an attribution study of the driving mechanisms of the northern hemisphere Martian polar vortex. Using a reanalysis dataset and an idealized MGCM, we investigate the combined effects of dust, latent heat release, and topography on the polar vortex.

We show that the vertical PV structure of the polar vortex in the reanalysis is dependent on the observations assimilated, and that high atmospheric dust loading (such as that seen during a global dust storm) can disrupt the vortex and cause the destruction of PV in the low-mid altitudes. We also demonstrate that high dust loading can significantly reduce eddy activity within the core of the vortex over the course of a Martian winter. Latent heat release from carbon dioxide condensation is an important driver of variability within the polar vortex, but it is dust in the model that primarily drives the eddy activity throughout the Martian year.

How to cite: Ball, E., Mitchell, D., Seviour, W., Vallis, G., and Thomson, S.: Drivers of Mars' northern winter polar vortex, EGU General Assembly 2021, online, 19–30 Apr 2021, EGU21-7617, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu21-7617, 2021.

How to cite: Holmes, J., Lewis, S., Patel, M., Chaffin, M., Cangi, E., Deighan, J., Schneider, N., Aoki, S., Fedorova, A., Kass, D., and Vandaele, A. C.: Enhanced water loss during the Mars Year 34 C storm, EGU General Assembly 2021, online, 19–30 Apr 2021, EGU21-14926, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu21-14926, 2021.

Carbon dioxide is the major constituent of the Martian atmosphere. Its seasonal cycle plays an important role in atmospheric dynamics and climate. Formation of the polar CO₂ frost deposits results in up to 30% of atmospheric pressure variations as well as in dramatic change in surface reflectance and emissivity. Another case of carbon dioxide condensation is formation of a CO₂ clouds that are still poorly studied, despite the fact that they have been observed by a number of instruments [1−6] on the orbit of Mars.

In this work, we will present first results of CO₂ clouds observations from a combination of thermal-infrared (1.7−17 µm) and near-infrared (0.7-1.6 µm) spectra measured by TIRVIM and NIR instruments onboard the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO) in solar occultation geometry. These instruments are part of the Atmospheric Chemistry Suite (ACS), a set of three spectrometers (NIR, MIR, and TIRVIM) that is conducting scientific measurements on the orbit of Mars since the spring of 2018 [7].

This work was funded by Russian Science Foundation, grant number 20-42-09035.

References

[1] Montmessin et al. (2006). Subvisible CO2 ice clouds detected in the mesosphere of Mars. Icarus, 183, 403–410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2006.03.015

[2] Montmessin et al. (2007). Hyperspectral imaging of convective CO2 ice clouds in the equatorial mesosphere of Mars. Journal of Geophysical Research, 112, E11S90. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JE002944

[3] Määttänen et al. (2010). Mapping the mesospheric CO2 clouds on Mars: MEx/OMEGA and MEx/HRSC observations and challenges for atmospheric models. Icarus, 209, 452–469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2010.05.017

[4] McConnochie et al. (2010). THEMIS-VIS observations of clouds in the Martian mesosphere: Altitudes, wind speeds, and decameter-scale morphology. Icarus, 210, 545–565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2010.07.021

[5] Vincendon et al. (2011). New near-IR observations of mesospheric CO2 and H2O clouds on Mars. Journal of Geophysical Research, 116, E00J02. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JE003827

[6] Jiang et al., (2019). Detection of Mesospheric CO 2 Ice Clouds on Mars in Southern Summer. Geophysical Research Letters, 46(14), 7962–7971. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL082029

[7] Korablev et al., (2018). The Atmospheric Chemistry Suite (ACS) of three spectrometers for the ExoMars 2016 Trace Gas Orbiter. Space Sci. Rev. 214, 7. doi:10.1007/s11214-017-0437-6

How to cite: Luginin, M., Ignatiev, N., Fedorova, A., Trokhimovskiy, A., Grigoriev, A., Shakun, A., Montmessin, F., and Korablev, O.: Observations of CO2 clouds on Mars from TIRVIM and NIR solar occultation measurements onboard TGO, EGU General Assembly 2021, online, 19–30 Apr 2021, EGU21-12721, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu21-12721, 2021.

   Mars may have obtained a proto-atmosphere enriched in H₂, CH₄, and CO during accretion. Such a reduced proto-atmosphere would have been largely lost by hydrodynamic escape, but its flux is highly uncertain. To estimate the evolution of the proto-atmosphere of Mars correctly, an exact escape modeling including exact radiative balance and chemical processes is required partly because those reduced species and their photochemical products may act as an effective coolant that suppresses the escape of atmosphere. Here we develop a one-dimensional hydrodynamic escape model that includes radiative processes and photochemical processes for a multi-component atmosphere and apply to the reduced proto-atmosphere on Mars.

   Under the enhanced XUV flux suggested for young Sun, the escape flux decreases by more than one order of magnitude with increasing the mixing fraction of CH₄ and CO  from zero to > 10 % mainly because of the energy loss by radiative cooling by these infrared active chemical molecules. Concurrently, the mass fractionation between H₂ and other heavier species becomes to be enhanced. Given that the proto-Mars initially obtained > 10 bar of H₂ and carbon species equivalent to 1 bar of CO₂ was then left behind after the end of the hydrodynamic escape of H₂, the total amount of carbon species lost by hydrodynamic escape is estimated to be equivalent to 20 bar of CO₂ or more. Such a severe loss of carbon species may explain the paucity of CO₂ on Mars compared to Earth and Venus. If the proto-Mars obtained > 100 bar of H₂, the timescale for H₂ escape exceeds ~100 Myr. This implies that an atmosphere with reduced chemical compositions allowing the production of organic matter deposits may have been kept on early Mars traceable by geologic records.

How to cite: Yoshida, T. and Kuramoto, K.: Sluggish hydrodynamic escape of early Martian atmosphere with reduced chemical compositions, EGU General Assembly 2021, online, 19–30 Apr 2021, EGU21-10804, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu21-10804, 2021.

We have over the years developed a state of the art Venus Global Climate Model (GCM, Lebonnois et al. 2016; Gilli et al. 2017; Garate-Lopez & Lebonnois 2018). With funding from ESA in the context of the preparation of the possible upcoming EnVision mission, we have, in the footsteps of what has been done for Mars with the Mars Climate Database (), built a Venus Climate Database (VCD) based on GCM outputs.

The VCD dataset and software overall enable users to:

- extract atmospheric quantities (temperature, pressure, winds, density, …) from the surface to the exobase (~250km) over a climatological Venusian day.

- to better bracket reality, several scenarios are provided, in order to reflect the possible range of solar activity (Extreme UV input from the Sun) which strongly affects the thermosphere (above ~150km), as well as a realistic range of UV albedo cloud top.

- in addition to a baseline climatology, the VCD software provides statistics (internal short term and day-to-day variability) along with means to add perturbations to represent Venusian weather.

At EGU we will present the VCD and its features, emphasizing how it can be useful for scientific users wanting to compare with their models or analyze observations, and for engineers planning future missions.

How to cite: Lebonnois, S., Millour, E., Martinez, A., Pierron, T., Spiga, A., Chaufray, J.-Y., Montmessin, F., and Cipriani, F.: The Venus Climate Database, EGU General Assembly 2021, online, 19–30 Apr 2021, EGU21-5515, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu21-5515, 2021.

For fifteen years, a Global Climate Model (GCM) has been developed for the Venus atmosphere at Institut Pierre-Simon Laplace (IPSL), in collaboration between LMD and LATMOS, from the surface up to 150 km altitude. Its recent extension up to the exobase (roughly 250 km) within the framework of the VCD project now allows us to simulate the Venusian upper atmosphere and the key atmospheric parameters of the aerobraking phases. The aim of this presentation is to study the evolution of the density of the Venusian upper atmosphere as a function of different parameters such as solar irradiance, latitude, local time and zenith solar angle (SZA), for regions from 130 to 180 km of altitude. We will present here several comparisons of the upper atmosphere of Venus between our model results and a selection of aerobraking data from different missions such as Venus Express, Pioneer Venus and Magellan.

How to cite: Martinez, A., Lebonnois, S., Chaufray, J.-Y., Millour, E., and Pierron, T.: Comparison between IPSL Venus Global Climate Model results and aerobraking data, EGU General Assembly 2021, online, 19–30 Apr 2021, EGU21-5025, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu21-5025, 2021.

General circulation and waves are investigated using a T63 Venus general circulation model (GCM) with solar and thermal radiative transfer in the presence of high-resolution surface topography. This model has been developed by Ikeda (2011) at the Atmosphere and Ocean Research Institute (AORI), the University of Tokyo, and was used in Yamamoto et al. (2019, 2021). In the wind and static stability structures similar to the observed ones, the waves are investigated. Around the cloud-heating maximum (~65 km), the simulated thermal tides accelerate an equatorial superrotational flow with a speed of ~90 m/swith rates of 0.2–0.5 m/s/(Earth day) via both horizontal and vertical momentum fluxes at low latitudes. Over the high mountains at low latitudes, the vertical wind variance at the cloud top is produced by topographically-fixed, short-period eddies, indicating penetrative plumes and gravity waves. In the solar-fixed coordinate system, the variances (i.e., the activity of waves other than thermal tides) of flow are relatively higher on the night-side than on the dayside at the cloud top. The local-time variation of the vertical eddy momentum flux is produced by both thermal tides and solar-related, small-scale gravity waves. Around the cloud bottom, the 9-day super-rotation of the zonal mean flow has a weak equatorial maximum and the 7.5-day Kelvin-like wave has an equatorial jet-like wind of 60-70 m/s. Because we discussed the thermal tide and topographically stationary wave in Yamamoto et al. (2021), we focus on the short-period eddies in the presentation.

How to cite: Yamamoto, M., Hirose, T., Ikeda, K., and Takahashi, M.: Atmospheric general circulation and waves simulated by a Venus AORI GCM with topographical and radiative forcings, EGU General Assembly 2021, online, 19–30 Apr 2021, EGU21-3657, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu21-3657, 2021.

The interest in the possibility of life on Venus is driven not just by curiosity about life originating in another Earth-like environment, but because of the possibility that life may be playing a critical role in the planet’s present, and possibly its past, atmospheric state. The brilliance of Venus in the night sky (as viewed from Earth) is due to its highly reflective cloud cover, about 28 km thick at the equator.  Its spectral albedo is about 90% at wavelengths > 500 nm, but it drops gradually to about 40% around 370 nm before rising slightly at shorter wavelengths.  This albedo drop is due to the presence of several absorbers in the atmosphere and the cloud cover.  A very large fraction of the energy absorbed by Venus is at ultraviolet wavelengths with sulfur dioxide above the clouds contributing to the absorption below 330 nm; however, the identities of the other absorbers remain unknown.  The inability to identify the absorbers that are responsible for determining the radiative energy balance of Venus over the last century is a major impediment to understanding how the planet “works”, a major component of NASA’s efforts in planetary exploration.  Limaye et al. (Astrobiology 18, 1181-1198, 2018) presented a hypothesis suggesting that cloud-based microbial life could be contributors to the spectral signatures of Venus’ clouds, building upon previous suggestions of the possibility of life in the clouds of Venus.

Four interconnected themes for the exploration of Venus as an astrobiology target are: – (i) investigations focused on the likelihood that liquid water existed on the surface in the past leading to the potential for the origin and evolution of life, (ii) investigations into the potential for habitable zones within Venus’ clouds and Venus-like atmospheres, (iii) theoretical investigations into how active aerobiology may impact the radiative energy balance of Venus’ clouds and Venus-like atmospheres, and (iv) application of these investigative themes towards better understanding the atmospheric dynamics and habitability of exoplanets. These themes can serve as a basis for proposed Venus Astrobiology Objectives and suggestions for measurements for future missions, as per the goals and objectives developed by the Venus Exploration Analysis Group (VEXAG), which is sponsored by NASA to plan for the future exploration of Venus.  

A Venus Collection to be published in Astrobiology journal in 2021 will include papers from the  “Habitability of the Venus Cloud Layer”, Moscow (October 2019) workshop. 

How to cite: Limaye, S., Mogul, R., Baines, K., Bullock, M., Cockell, C., Cutts, J., Gentry, D., Head, J., Jessup, K.-L., Kompanichenko, V., Lee, Y. J., Mathies, R., Milojevic, T., Pertzborn, R., Rothschild, L., Schulze-Makuch, D., Smith, D., and Way, M.: Venus, an Astrobiology Target, EGU General Assembly 2021, online, 19–30 Apr 2021, EGU21-5999, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu21-5999, 2021.

Planetary atmospheric electrification has the potential to damage spacecraft, yet for planets with thick, deep atmospheres such as Venus, the level of electrification remains open to interpretation. Partly due to the difficulty of access and potential hostility to spacecraft, there are limited in-situ observations of deep atmospheres, making terrestrial analogies attractive. One proposed explanation of the observations of near-surface electrification on Venus from sensors on Venera 13 & 14 is a haze of charged aerosol. As the Sahara is an environment with lofted dust that is potentially similar to Venus in terms of atmospheric stability, a simple model was developed estimating a mean aerosol charge based on typical Saharan haze aerosol distributions. Spacecraft surface area and descent speeds were used to estimate the accumulated charge and discharge current measured by the Venera missions, but this model underestimated Venera's electrical measurements by three orders of magnitude. This suggests that an aerosol layer alone cannot explain the charge apparently present in the lower atmosphere of Venus. The simple terrestrial analogy employed may not have been suitable due to the modified pressure and temperature profile affecting the mean free path, ionic mobility and consequently the mean charge. Discrepancies in atmospheric stability and wind patterns must also be evaluated, as the effect of terrestrial wind on aerosol distributions may not be directly applicable to other planets. More detailed calculations of ion-aerosol attachment and re-evaluation of the terrestrial analogy may be able to resolve some these issues, but it looks likely that additional significant sources of charge are required to explain the Venera observations. Triboelectric charging of lofted surface material could exceed charging observed in terrestrial situations, or some unknown atmospheric or non-atmospheric source of charge could have contributed to the Venera electrical measurements. 

How to cite: Johnson, A. and Aplin, K.: Planetary aerosol electrification: Lessons learned from a terrestrial analogy for Venus, EGU General Assembly 2021, online, 19–30 Apr 2021, EGU21-7453, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu21-7453, 2021.

We show that Venus’ disk-integrated brightness at 283, 365, and 2020 nm is modulated by one or both of two periods of 3.7 and 4.6 days, as observed from the Akatsuki Venus orbiter of JAXA. Their typical amplitudes are <10%, but there are occasional events of 20–40%. We find a clear anti-correlation between UV and 2020-nm signals, implying that the cloud top altitudes (2020 nm) and the abundances of UV absorbers (283 and 365 nm) change simultaneously in the global scale. We note that the detected modulations, and their wavelength dependent signals imply the existence of an atmosphere if detected at an exoplanet. Our results should be useful in future direct imaging of terrestrial exoplanets. More details are shown in our paper (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19385-6).

How to cite: Lee, Y. J., García Muñoz, A., Imamura, T., Yamada, M., Satoh, T., Yamazaki, A., and Watanabe, S.: Short-term modulations of Venus’ disk-integrated brightness observed from the Venus orbiter Akatsuki, EGU General Assembly 2021, online, 19–30 Apr 2021, EGU21-14528, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu21-14528, 2021.

The Io Volcano Observer (IVO) is a proposed NASA Discovery-class mission (currently in Phase A), that would launch in early 2029, arrive at  Jupiter in the early 2033, and perform ten flybys of Io while in Jupiter's orbit. IVO's mission motto is to 'follow the heat', shedding light onto tidal heating as a fundamental planetary process. Specifically, IVO will determine (i) how and where heat is generated in Io's interior, (ii) how heat is transported to the surface, and (iii) how Io has evolved with time. The answers to these questions will fill fundamental gaps in the current understanding of the evolution and habitability of many worlds across our Solar System and beyond where tidal heating plays a key role, and will give us insight into how early Earth, Moon, and Mars may have worked.

One of the five key science questions IVO will be addressing is determining Io's mass loss via atmospheric escape. Understanding Io's mass loss today will offer information on how the chemistry of Io has been altered from its initial state and would provide useful clues on how atmospheres on other bodies have evolved over time. IVO plans on measuring Io's mass loss in situ with the Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer (INMS), a successor to the instrument currently being built for the JUpiter Icy moons Explorer (JUICE). INMS will measure neutrals and ions in the mass range 1 – 300 u, with a mass resolution (M/ΔM) of 500, a dynamic range of > 10⁵, a detection threshold of 100 cm^–3 for an integration time of 5 s, and a cadence of 0.5 – 300 s per spectrum.

In preparation for IVO, we model atmospheric density profiles of species known and expected to be present on Io's surface from both measurements and previous modelling efforts. Based on the IVO mission design, we present three different measurement scenarios for INMS we expect to encounter at Io based on the planned flybys: (i) a purely sublimated atmosphere, (ii) the 'hot' atmosphere generated by lava fields, and (iii) the plume gases resulting from volcanic activity. We calculate the expected mass spectra to be recorded by INMS during these flybys for these atmospheric scenarios.

How to cite: Wurz, P., Vorburger, A., McEwen, A., Mandt, K., Davies, A., Hörst, S., and Thomas, N.: Modelling of Io’s Atmosphere for the IVO Mission, EGU General Assembly 2021, online, 19–30 Apr 2021, EGU21-778, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu21-778, 2021.

Exoplanets provide excellent laboratories to explore novel atmospheric regimes; using observations coupled with microphysical models we can probe our understanding of the formation and evolution of planets beyond those in the Solar System. However, clouds remain a key challenge in observation of exoplanet atmospheres, both altering the local atmospheric composition and obscuring deeper atmospheric layers. Currently, most observed exoplanet atmospheres are tidally locked gas-giants in close orbit around their host star. These hot and ultra-hot Jupiters have day-side temperatures in excess of 2500 K, and still above 400 K on the night-side, thus they form solid clouds made of minerals, metal oxides and metals. These clouds may form snowflake like structures, either through condensation or by constructive collisions (coagulation).

We explore the effects of non-compact, non-spherical cloud particles in gas-giant exoplanet atmospheres by expanding our kinetic non-equilibrium cloud formation model, to include parameterised porous cloud particles as well as cloud particle growth and fragmentation through collisions. We apply this model to prescribed 1D temperature - pressure Drift-Phoenix atmospheric profiles, using Mie theory and effective medium theory to study cloud optical depths, representing the effects of the non-spherical cloud particles through a statistical distribution of hollow spheres.

Finally, we apply our cloud formation model to a sample of gas-giants as well as ultra-hot Jupiters, using 1D profiles extracted from the 3D SPARC/MITgcm general circulation model. In particular, we take the example cases of gas-giant WASP-43b and the ultra-hot Jupiter HAT-P-7b, where we find dramatic differences in the day-/night-side distribution of clouds between these types of exoplanets due to the intensity of stellar irradiation for HAT-P-7b. Further an asymmetry in cloud coverage at the terminators of ultra-hot Jupiters is observable in the optical depth of the clouds, which affects the observable atmospheric column and thus has implication for detection of key gas phase species. Clouds also enhance the gas phase C/O which is often used as an indicator of formation history. With next-generation instruments such as the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) such details will begin to be examined, but we find that a detailed understanding of cloud formation processes will be required to interpret observations.

How to cite: Samra, D., Helling, C., Min, M., and Birnstiel, T.: Modelling Mineral Snowflakes in the Atmospheres of Gas-Giant Exoplanets, EGU General Assembly 2021, online, 19–30 Apr 2021, EGU21-10235, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu21-10235, 2021.

How to cite: Lewis, N. and Read, P.: Planetary and atmospheric properties leading to strong super-rotation in terrestrial atmospheres studied with a semi-grey GCM, EGU General Assembly 2021, online, 19–30 Apr 2021, EGU21-4855, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu21-4855, 2021.

Rocky extrasolar planets orbiting M dwarfs are prime targets in the search for habitable surface conditions and biosignatures with near-future telescopes like the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) and the Extremely Large Telescope (ELT). Even for the closest known targets the capabilities to characterize Earth-like or CO₂-dominated atmospheres with JWST or ELT might still be limited to a few molecules such as CO₂ or CH₄. Hence it would be difficult to draw conclusions on the surface conditions and potential habitability of these planets. In clear H₂-He atmospheres the molecular features in transmission spectra could be much larger and hence potential biosignatures might be detectable.

In this study, we investigate the detectability of the potential biosignatures NH₃, PH₃, CH₃Cl, and N₂O, assuming different H₂-He atmospheres for the habitable zone super-Earth LHS 1140 b. Recent observations of the atmosphere of LHS 1140 b suggest that the planet might hold a clear H₂-dominated atmosphere and might show an absorption feature around 1.4 µm due to H₂O or CH₄ absorption. Here we use the coupled convective-climate-photochemistry model 1D-TERRA to simulate H₂ atmospheres of LHS 1140 b with different amounts of CH₄ and assuming that the planet has an ocean and a biosphere.

The destruction of the potential biosignatures NH₃, PH₃, CH₃Cl, and N₂O shows a weak dependence on the concentrations of CH₄. For weak abundances of CH₄ only 5 to 10 transits are required to detect these molecules with JWST or ELT. However, for CH₄ surface mixing ratios of a few percent only NH₃ and N₂O might be detectable with less than 10 transits. A scenario with large abundances of CH₄ is consistent with the spectral feature at 1.4 µm and such an atmosphere might allow habitable surface temperatures. If this spectral feature at 1.4 µm originates from H₂O absorption, the planet is likely not habitable at the surface.

How to cite: Wunderlich, F., Scheucher, M., Grenfell, J. L., Schreier, F., Sousa-Silva, C., Godolt, M., and Rauer, H.: Detectability of biosignatures on LHS 1140 b, EGU General Assembly 2021, online, 19–30 Apr 2021, EGU21-15410, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu21-15410, 2021.