CR3.4

Fallout radionuclides (FRNs) are a product of nuclear accidents and weapons testing, and are known environmental contaminants. There has been extensive research into the risks and consequences of FRN deposition for human and ecosystem health, however this has rarely extended to the cryosphere. The results of our international collaboration reveal widespread accumulation of FRNs in cryoconite spanning 30 glacier sites and 477 samples across the Arctic, the Alps, the Caucasus, North America, the Andes, the Himalaya and Antarctica. The activity levels of FRNs found in many samples are orders of magnitude higher than those found in other environmental matrices such as mosses and lichens, and include some of the highest ever recorded outside of nuclear exclusion zones. This raises important questions around the role of glaciers, and specifically cryoconite and its interaction with meltwater, in concentrating - and eventually releasing - FRNs to levels above those historically deposited in the surrounding environment. We compare FRNs in cryoconite with a range of geographical and environmental factors, and find no significant correlation between ¹³⁷Cs and distance from Chernobyl, and moderate correlations for ²⁴¹Am and ²¹⁰Pb which deteriorate to no significant correlation when only Northern Hemisphere sites are considered. We also find no correlation with distance from the sea, or with mean elevation, but a moderate correlation between precipitation and both ¹³⁷Cs and ²⁴¹Am, highlighting the importance of scavenging of atmospheric contaminants by snow. Notably, we find a strong correlation between organic matter and activities of both ¹³⁷Cs and ²¹⁰Pb, reflecting the capacity of cryoconite to bind FRNs due the presence of extracellular polymeric substances. This research has, for the first time, shed light on the widespread occurrence of FRNs in glacier catchments across the global cryosphere. The potential risks of FRN exposure for water and environmental quality, including uptake of FRNs by flora and fauna, should be a focus of future interdisciplinary research as glaciers continue to retreat and release legacy contaminants into proglacial environments.

How to cite: Clason, C. and the Rad-Ice team: Distribution and controls on the accumulation of fallout radionuclides in cryoconite across the global cryosphere, EGU General Assembly 2022, Vienna, Austria, 23–27 May 2022, EGU22-1271, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu22-1271, 2022.

Widespread and fast melting of glaciers and ice sheets as a result of marked climate warming leads to a variety of possible hazards, both in proximal and (sea level) far-field regions. Past melting behavior of the Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS)  has been strongly controlled by northern hemisphere insolation changes. In the early- and mid-Holocene relatively high insolation led to marked ice sheet retreat. The GrIS extent reached its minimum in NW Greenland  between  5 and 3 ka (ka = 1000 yrs before present) and in southern Greenland between 7 and 4 ka(1). During this regional ‘Holocene Thermal  Maximum’ (HTM) a more humid climate prevailed with summer  temperatures  3^o to 5^o C higher than in the mid-20^th century(2,3). Here we report sediment records from Greenland fjords indicative of drastically enhanced bottom current activity as well as local occurrence of massive silt deposition during above HTM periods. In Ameralik fjord near Nuuk a major sediment hiatus exists for the interval 6.8 to 4.4 ka(4), whereas nearby in this fjord massive deposition of silty melt water sediments subsequently occurred(5). In the outer part of Igaliku Fjord, South Greenland, sedimentation had stopped between approx. 7 and 3.7 ka(6). Nearby lake deposits display record-high accumulation rates of organic-rich sediment associated with a mild, stormy climate between 4.5 and 3.7 ka(7). On the shelf near Nuuk sediment geochemistry confirms significant melt water sediment transport from the adjacent mainland, markedly ceasing after 4 ka(8). Lacking of a hardground underlying the hiatus in the sediment core from Ameralik fjord points to erosion instead of long-term non-depositional conditions. Coastal deposits lack evidence of mid-holocene earthquake-induced tsunami activity, a potential trigger mechanism we thus may exclude. Instead we conclude that widespread glacier melting under a much warmer (> 2^o) climate must have led to repeated (sub)glacial  meltwater outburst surges producing high-energy, hyperpycnal  flow processes in the fjords. Sea level high-stand data from far-field regions around the Indian Ocean suggest most prominent melting episodes around 6 ka and near 4.3 ka(9).  Higher temperatures and increased precipitation rates in western Greenland presumably also favored widespread onshore permafrost thawing and consequently local destabilization of fjord slopes. Associated mud- and debris flow processes likewise have had a severe impact on the fjord sedimentary regime and benthic ecosystem. Based on above sedimentary records, we thus conclude that further ongoing global warming will have hazardous effects on the benthic environment of glacial fjords.

1) Young, N.E., J.P. Briner, 2015. Quat Sci Rev 114, 1-17

2) Axford, Y. et al. 2020. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci, doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-081420-063858

3) Levy, L.B. et al. 2018. Arctic, Antarctic, Alpine Res. 2018, 18(1), e1414477, doi.org/10.1080/15230430.2017.1414477

4) Ren, J. et al. 2009. Mar Micropal, doi:10.1016/j.marmicro.2008.12.003               

5) Møller, H.S. et al. 2006.The Holocene 16,5, 685-695

6) Lassen, S.J. et al. 2004.The Holocene 14,2,165-171      

7) Andresen, C.S. et al. 2004. J Quat Sci 19(8) doi:10.1002/jqs.886

8) Madaj, L. et al.2021. EGU Gen. Assem.2020, doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu2020-786

9) Hosseinyar, G.et al. 2021. Quat Intern 571, 26–45

How to cite: Kuijpers, A., Lassen, S., Ren, J., and Hosseinyar, G.: Disruption of the sedimentary environment in Greenland fjords due to enhanced cryosphere melting caused by > 2oC climate warming, EGU General Assembly 2022, Vienna, Austria, 23–27 May 2022, EGU22-2441, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu22-2441, 2022.

This paper presents the results from fieldwork conducted in three focal areas of the “Nunataryuk” EU H2020 permafrost project: the Nordic Area (Greenland and Svalbard), the Beaufort Sea Area in Canada (Northwest Territories/ Inuvialuit Settlement Region and Gwich’in First Nation Traditional Territory) and Northeastern Siberia in Russia. The paper analyzes the entanglement between social and environmental change and presents a risk analysis framework, including the interconnected geo-physical & socio-cultural risks, with the aim to improve adaptation and mitigation strategies of local communities. Guided by a mixed-methods approach, the research outcomes are the result of field-based research, including focus groups, qualitative interviews, participant observation, community workshops – as well as a quantitative survey in three settlements (Qeqertarsuaq in Greenland, Aklavik in Canada and Longyearbyen on Svalbard).

How to cite: Gartler, S., Larsen, J. N., Ingimundarson, J. H., Schweitzer, P., Povoroznyuk, O., and Meyer, A.: A risk analysis framework: Key risks from permafrost thaw in Arctic coastal areas, EGU General Assembly 2022, Vienna, Austria, 23–27 May 2022, EGU22-7937, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu22-7937, 2022.

Infrastructure and anthropogenic impacts are expanding across the Arctic. A consistent record of human impact is required in order to quantify the changes and to assess climate change impacts on the communities.
We derived a first panarctic satellite-based record of expanding infrastructure and anthropogenic impacts along all permafrost affected coasts (100 km buffer) within the H2020 project Nunataryuk based on Sentinel-1/2 satellite imagery. C-band synthetic aperture radar and multi-spectral information is combined through a machine learning framework. Depending on region, we identified up to 50% more information (human presence) than in OpenStreetMap. The combination with satellite records on vegetation change (specifically NDVI from Landsat since 2000) allowed quantification of recent expansion of infrastructure. Most of the expanded human presence occurred in Russia related predominantly to oil/gas industry.

The majority of areas with human presence in this coastal zone will be subject to thaw by mid-21st century based on ground temperature trends derived from the ESA CCI+ Permafrost time series (1997-2019). Of specific concern in this context are also settlements located directly at permafrost affected coasts. An efficient erosion rate monitoring scheme needs to be developed and combined with settlement records and permafrost information in order to assess the risk for local communities and infrastructure. Relevant progress in the framework of the ESA EO4PAC project will be discussed.

How to cite: Bartsch, A., Widhalm, B., Pointner, G., von Baeckmann, C., Nitze, I., Grosse, G., Lantuit, H., Irrgang, A., Boike, J., and Vieira, G.: Where is Arctic coastal infrastructure at risk?, EGU General Assembly 2022, Vienna, Austria, 23–27 May 2022, EGU22-9094, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu22-9094, 2022.

High-mountain regions are very sensitive to climatic changes, which is particularly visible in the drastic retreat of Alpine glaciers. Concomitant with retreating glaciers, permafrost degradation affects large parts of high-mountain regions. In recent years, the hydrological significance of permafrost ice has therefore increasingly come into focus. However, surprisingly little is known about the current state and size of water resources in alpine permafrost. Moreover, it remains unknown whether the thawing of permafrost is already making a significant contribution to late summer runoff in alpine catchments.

In this study we combine UAV-derived volumetric change detection with the hydro-chemical analysis of δ18O and δ2H isotope signatures and the radio nuclide ¹²⁹I in the discharge from the Kaiserberg rock glacier in the Austrian Alps. The combination of these methods allows a direct and indirect quantification of permafrost degradation. Furthermore, the isotopic signatures help to decipher the relative and absolute permafrost contribution to discharge over the summer months.

First results from the analysis of digital elevation models show an average volume loss of several thousand cubic metres per year between 2017 and 2019. In addition, geochemical data on δ¹⁸O- and δ²H-isotopes and the radionuclide ¹²⁹I indicate an increased contribution of meltwater from the permafrost body of the Kaiserberg rock glacier in the summer months, which is dominant on single days in late summer. 

How to cite: Kraushaar, S. and Bloethe, J. H.: Towards deciphering the contribution of permafrost and active layer to summer runoff in a small alpine catchment, EGU General Assembly 2022, Vienna, Austria, 23–27 May 2022, EGU22-7052, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu22-7052, 2022.

The Grandes Jorasses Massif culminates at 4203m at the Punta Walker summit on the border between France and Italy. The south slope of Grandes Jorasses is widely glaciated and overlies the Val Ferret, a populated and highly frequented area presenting different hamlets, the most important being Planpincieux village. Located at an altitude between 4000 and 4100 m, the Whymper Serac is a hanging glacier that undergoes periodic gravity-driven instabilities. On 1^st June of 1998, 150.000m³ of ice fell, and the resulting ice avalanche reached 1750m, at a distance of about 400m from houses of the Le Pont village and the main road. The monitoring activity started in 1997: a  series of boreholes had been drilled to assess the basal thermal regime of the serac and subsequently install a monitoring system for early warning signs and risk assessment

In September 2020, three thermistor chains in three different boreholes were installed on Whymper Serac. Temperature profiles were measured at different periods between October and November 2020. In September 2021 another three thermistor chains were installed and their temperature profile measured in October 2021. During the same survey, temperature profiles of the 2020 thermistors could be measured again on 2 out of 3 boreholes, (one being too close to the serac front was not safe to reach) confirming data acquired on the 2020 field campaign. The outcome of basal temperature measurements of 2020 and 2021 give good spatial coverage of the serac allowing comparison with data from the 1997 measurements, despite on the fact that most of the ice mass fell in 1998.

A warming trend in most of the temperature profiles is evident in comparison whith 1997 data; 5 out of 6 points of measure still show temperatures below 0° C. One point of measure shows evidence of temperate ice at the ice/bedrock interface. Whymper Serac measurements provide evidence that the glacier is still frozen to the bedrock, but one part of the serac shows the beginning of a potential transition from cold based regime to temperate based regime. If, on one hand, surface displacements of the ice mass still show low displacements (typical of a cold based glacier), on the other hand, a velocity anomaly was detected on a small portion of the serac corresponding to the temperate based sector. Further research is needed to better understand the evolution of the thermo-mechanical conditions of the Whymper Serac in the current climate change scenarios. Therefore, thermo-mechanical modeling of the Whymper Serac is underway, based on the Elmer/Ice model.

How to cite: Troilo, F., Paolo, P., Gottardelli, S., Mondardini, L., Giordan, D., Dematteis, N., Piard, L., Gagliardini, O., Gilbert, A., and Vincent, C.: Basal thermal regime investigations at Whymper hanging Glacier (Aosta Valley – Italy), EGU General Assembly 2022, Vienna, Austria, 23–27 May 2022, EGU22-7208, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu22-7208, 2022.

Forward simulations of ice avalanches are important to inform risk management. However, the reliability of such simulations often suffers from the dependency of model parameters on the process magnitude, hampering the simulation of unprecedented events in a given area. We suggest a reliable, straightforward and practically applicable work flow for the forward simulation of ice avalanches for the purpose of risk management with regard to the Planpincieux glacier, located on the Italian side of Mont Blanc massif.

Since 2013, the Planpincieux glacier, has been studied to analyse the dynamics of ice collapses in a temperate glacier. Several documented ice avalanches and glacial floods (1929, 1952, 1982, 2005, 2017), which, in some cases, threatened the village of Planpincieux and damaged the municipal road, have been linked to this glacier. Starting from the summer of 2019, a fast moving ice volume, partially separated by the rest of the glacier tongue by a large crevasse, has drastically increased the occurrence of a new collapse with possible implications for the valley floor. Considering the potential risk, a glacier constant monitoring (GbInSAR) and an avalanche early warning system (avalanche Doppler radar) were deployed, and numerical modelling of ice avalanches from this glacier was made.

Thereby, we couple an empirical-statistical model with a physically-based mass flow model: (I) the rules of Alean (1985) for the angle of reach are fed into the software r.randomwalk in order to estimate worst-case reference travel distances for various scenarios of starting volumes, (II) the basal friction angle used in the physically-based tool r.avaflow is optimized against those reference travel distances for each volume scenario, (III) the travel distances and travel times are checked for plausibility against well-documented events, (IV) flow pressures and flow kinetic energies are computed with r.avaflow for each volume scenario.

The model results are well supported by empirical data for smaller events, whereas direct reference data for the larger scenarios are not available. Interpretation of the results further has to take into account that (A) for some scenarios, the empirical relationships had to be extended beyond their known range of validity, introducing additional uncertainty, and (B) the relationships do not work for snow-covered trajectories, that, for example, would decrease the friction and lead to longer travel distances. As a result, the outcomes can be, with some care, considered as worst-case assumptions for ice avalanches in summer, but are not valid for ice avalanches during the other seasons.

How to cite: Perret, P., Mergili, M., Gottardelli, S., Mondardini, L., Segor, V., and Troilo, F.: Numerical modelling of ice avalanches from the Planpincieux glacier (Italy), EGU General Assembly 2022, Vienna, Austria, 23–27 May 2022, EGU22-7327, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu22-7327, 2022.

The mountain cryosphere is currently undergoing substantial modifications in an unprecedented short period of time. As effects of climate change becomes important, understanding the glacier and periglacial dynamics that lead to complex and delayed responses is timely. The spatial and functional interactions between landforms within these environments may strongly influence their processes (e.g., ablation, accumulation), usually studied in two separate research paths (i.e., glaciology and geomorphology). Very little research has focused on glacial and periglacial systems, where several perennial cryospheric elements (debris-covered glaciers, rock glaciers) are intertwined.

Here, a multidisciplinary approach is proposed combining (i) Structure from Motion on historical, modern aerial images and spaceborne images, (ii) geophysical with Electrical Resistivity Tomograms , and (iii) geomorphological surveys. The purpose is to quantify and describe morphometric changes over seven decades (1940 - 2020) at the Chauvet glacial and periglacial system (Southern French Alps, 44.85°N, 6.84°E). This study site is critical in terms of natural hazards because at least six Glacier Lake Outburst Floods were recorded during the 20^th and 21^th centuries, likely related to the permafrost degradation, the presence of a thermokarstic lake and an englacial conduit within the ice.

Complex spatio-temporal patterns and functional interactions between different landforms were evidenced. In the upper part of the valley, a small debris-free glacier turns downvalley into a debris-covered glacier occupying most of the central part of the valley. Further downslope, a rock glacier developed. The contrasting developments and landform responses are documented with multi-temporal DEMs and ortho-images. Very low thinning rates and surface velocities (< 0.5 m a^-1) were observed on the rock glacier, whereas the adjacent debris-covered glacier presents intermediate thickness losses (> 1 m a^-1) and higher surface velocities. However, the contact zone between the dead debris-covered and the rock glacier shows clear signs of mass down-wasting and complex interplay of phenomena such as thermokarst melting of massive ice and the flow towards the topographic depression.

An important speed-up of the horizontal displacements since the 1990s and an important surface lowering have most probably conditioned the dynamics of the observed outburst-floods. Those seem to be a complex combination of several processes affecting the different cryospheric elements. (i) the well-developed thermokarst lake over debris-covered area, on the topographic depression (i.e., bucket shape with barriers damming the lake) which is mainly controlled by the bedrock morphology and evolution of the surface topography. The current capacity of this depression has been estimated to 180,000 ± 350 m³. (ii) the specific glacio-geomorphological dynamics of debris-covered and the rock glacier units, which dynamics influence the opening/enlargement and closure of the englacial conduit. (iii) the hydro-meteorological conditions (e.g., enhanced snow melt in late spring) probably impacts the hydrology, water filling and the lake outflow.

The findings of this study highlight the relationships between glacial and periglacial features and their long-term evolution. The systemic study of GLOF formation processes would lead to a better identification of sites at risk and to the implementation of more robust prevention procedures in order to face the environmental and societal challenges of climate change.

How to cite: Cusicanqui, D., Bodin, X., Rabatel, A., Duvillard, P. A., Revil, A., Schoeniech, P., and Berthet, J.: Glacier-permafrost interactions and GLOF’s. Insights from 7 decades of kinematics and elevation changes in the Southern French Alps., EGU General Assembly 2022, Vienna, Austria, 23–27 May 2022, EGU22-7659, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu22-7659, 2022.

Climate change is affecting the environment of Central Asia, the high mountains and particularly the paraglacial and glacial environments. Trends shown to affect the state and dynamics of glaciation; a gradual decrease in both area and volume, and the increase in the area of moraine deposits can be observed. Meanwhile, the frequency of occurrence of hazardous geological phenomena's related to glacial dynamics, such as outbursts of glacial lakes (GLOF'S), avalanches, rockfalls, blockages of river channels, as well as mudflows, is increasing. Observations after them are complicated by the inaccessibility of areas due to lack of infrastructure, seasonal restrictions, the required number of people to conduct observations in the field and financial costs. Studies shown that remote sensing technologies allow observation of changes and proved to have sufficient spatial and temporal resolution to assess the transformations taking place. In our study, we propose a method for assessing statistically significant changes occurring in the catchment for each of the image elements (pixel) over time using nonparametric statistics. The novelty of the work is the application of an assessment of the significance of these changes that allows to reduce the influence of human error in the analysis of images thus producing higher quality results and reducing time required. Although the technology is known in the world - and is used to solve the problems of machine learning and deep vision. For the territory of Uzbekistan and in this research area, this method is innovative, and the statistical assessment of significance over time is used for the first time. Thus, the method makes it possible to identify areas where significant changes have occurred due to events mentioned above, and reduces the amount of time and costs required to search for these areas to prevent or reduce further damage.

How to cite: Sabitov, T., Petrov, M., Mamirov, H., Akbarov, F., Suvonqulov, S., and Sabitova, N.: Tracking mountain geohazards in Uzbekistan with application of remote sensing and advances in data analysis., EGU General Assembly 2022, Vienna, Austria, 23–27 May 2022, EGU22-3113, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu22-3113, 2022.

More than 90 % of territory of Kyrgyz Republic are mountains.  More than two thousand lakes have formed but only some lakes pose a threat to lives, assets and livelihoods. Many of these lakes are seasonally dynamic, and form in ice-rich permafrost environments that are characteristic of the region. The objective of this study was to describe and implement an evidence-based expert lake hazard assessment criteria, to produce an updated inventory of hazardous lakes, which are susceptible to outburst within the territory of Kyrgyz Republic. A total of 368 lakes susceptible to outburst in Kyrgyzstan were inventoried and classified into 5 classes: ice-dammed, ice-cored moraine-dammed, ice-free moraine dammed, bedrock-dammed and moraine- dammed, and landslide-dammed lakes. The hazardous lake inventory was most recently updated in 2021 based on field works and remote sensing analysis.

All 368 lakes were described by a number of quantitative and qualitative characteristics and were assigned different levels of outburst susceptibility. All studied lakes are situated within the elevational zone between 1200 m.a.s.l. and 4300 m.a.s.l. All lakes were estimated in terms of their surface area from remote sensing data for different years, which ranges from thousands to millions of square meters. For 47 ice cored moraine dammed lakes bathymetry measurements were conducted, for many of them several times.

The outburst susceptibility was estimated according to 4 hazard categories and each lake is assigned within a certain category depending on current lake characteristics. A particular feature of the non-stationary lakes found in this region is the rapid changes in outburst susceptibility that can occur over short time-periods. A total of 111 lakes, which at least once have been assigned with the highest hazard levels (the 1^st or 2^nd category) in the period from 2006-2017 were analyzed for their changes over time. According to the analysis, the hazard level of many lakes varies over time and the number of category 1 and 2 lakes has considerably decreased in the recent decade. Lakes of the 1^st and 2^nd hazard categories decreased since 2006 by 57 % and 45 % respectively (from 21 to 9 and 49 to 27), while the number of lakes of the 3^rd and 4^th categories increased from 35 to 58 and 1 to 16.

The lake hazard assessment scheme developed for the Kyrgyz Republic may be a valuable tool for scientists and authorities dealing with outburst flood hazards in other similar environments of Central Asia and elsewhere.

How to cite: Erokhin, S., Zaginaev, V., Allen, S., and Meleshko, A.: Assessment and inventory of hazardous mountain lakes in Kyrgyz Republic, EGU General Assembly 2022, Vienna, Austria, 23–27 May 2022, EGU22-4864, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu22-4864, 2022.

Central Asia is facing important challenges to coping with the adverse effects of climate change. Within the Glacier Lake Outburst Floods in Central Asia (GLOFCA) Project, funded by the Adaptation Fund (AF), UNESCO and the university of Zurich, in strong collaboration with numerous local partners, aim at reducing vulnerabilities of populations in the Central Asia region from glacier lake outburst floods. The project is divided into five components: i) strengthening capacity to monitor and assess glacier lake outburst flood (GLOF) hazard, ii) strengthening national and regional policies and approaches to address the needs of vulnerable communities, iii) designing and launching tailored early warning systems (EWS) and risk reduction measures, iv) implementing targeted demonstration projects and defining best practices, and, finally, v) facilitating knowledge exchange, stakeholder engagement, and communication. The fifth component cuts across all others, and across the full 5 year project duration, recognising capacity building as being essential to the harmonious and sustainable outcome of the project.

The core of the Knowledge and Capacity Building Concept (component five) seeks to be a well-rounded education and training programme tailored for communities, stakeholders, scientists, and universities. The essential aim of this effort is to set the basis for institutionalising the project activities, learnings and successes of the project, and ultimately enabling autonomous sustainability and scaling-up of the project by local authorities and communities. At the onset of the project, a needs assessment was undertaken via a questionnaire shared with key stakeholders. Based on results of this survey, local expectations and requirements were clearly identified. State-of-the-art methodologies will be trained, offering an insight into both licensed and open-source software to assist risk assessment and modelling. Ideally, novel methodologies will be developed and established as regional best practices. The sustainability of the capacity building outcomes is key and this is why an important focus will be dedicated to the coordination between the different stakeholders and a teach-the-teachers module. All capacity building material and project-specific output will be exchanged via a web-based knowledge platform, with information regularly communicated through classical and social media. All the activities will be organised in a blended format, using tools such as webinars, distance-learning modules, as well as in-presence classes, workshops and summer schools. Through targeted and timely interventions, the GLOFCA project will help strengthen key institutions, build community resilience, and establish the next generation of hazard and risk management specialists, with the skills needed to support sustainable disaster risk reduction in Central Asia.

How to cite: Cicoira, A., Allen, S., Frey, H., Huggel, C., Niggli, L., Tom, M., Diebold, A., Kodirov, O., Mamadalieva, Z., Otambekzoda, B., Zhurumbetova, Z., Abdaliyeva, G., Kim, N., and Tovmasyan, K.: A knowledge and capacity building concept for reducing vulnerabilities from Glacier Lake Outburst Floods in Central Asia., EGU General Assembly 2022, Vienna, Austria, 23–27 May 2022, EGU22-6175, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu22-6175, 2022.