The Nadir and Occultation for MArs Discovery (NOMAD) spectrometer has been collecting Mars observations since 2018, providing a massive amount of information regarding its atmospheric composition, its vertical structure and bridging the gap between the previous knowledge of the lower atmosphere and the data from other missions (e.g., MAVEN) regarding atmospheric escape. The capability of the Solar Occultation (SO) channel to map the vertical structure of the atmosphere with a very high (>1000) signal-to-noise ratio, at a very high spectral resolution (>17000) and a high vertical sampling (0.5 to 2 km) is valuable in many contexts, ranging from the search for trace species in the lower atmosphere (10 to 40 km) to mapping the isotopic composition of the main atmospheric constituents (H₂O, CO₂, CO) or exploring the vertical structure of dust, water ice and CO₂ ice clouds.

Aerosols are some of the main drivers of the Martian climate, and the study of their spatial distribution and microphysical properties can advance our knowledge of their impact on the climate of the planet and on their formation and dynamics. This work will show the extension of previous investigations focused on dust, water ice and CO₂ ice using NOMAD data, by presenting the mapping of these atmospheric components on a global scale over 3 Martian Years (MY34 Ls 160 to MY37 Ls 170). The acquisition by NOMAD of several diffraction orders during a single occultation allows in fact to obtain spectrally broad information that can be used to map dust and water ice vertical distributions and particle sizes. The information content of NOMAD data about particle sizes of water ice has been demonstrated to be particularly high and to give important information about the nucleation processes of water ice. NOMAD data can also be used to look for CO₂ ice by combining broad spectral information with localized CO₂ ice features at 3600 and 3710 cm^-1, which are well identifiable in the NOMAD spectra.

Besides presenting the climatology of aerosols, we will illustrate specific features occurring during the Martian Year and their repeatability; more specifically, we will look into the differences between MY 34, characterized by a Global Dust Storm, and following years, to highlight the impact of dust-induced heating over cloud formation. We will also give some insights into CO₂ ice cloud formation, which was confirmed to be surprisingly heterogeneous compared to results obtained before TGO operations.

How to cite: Liuzzi, G., Villanueva, G., Aoki, S., Trompet, L., Daerden, F., Neary, L., Viscardy, S., Faggi, S., Stone, S. W., Thomas, I., Patel, M., and Vandaele, A. C.: A 3 Martian Year climatology of aerosols with ExoMars TGO-NOMAD: seasonal cycles and new insights, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-17142, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-17142, 2024.

Diurnal solar radiation forces global oscillations in pressure, temperature, and wind fields. They are called atmospheric or thermal tides and are additionally modified by topography, surface properties, and atmospheric absorber consentration. They propagate around the planet in periods that are integer fractions of a solar day and are only relevant in the upper atmosphere on Earth, but they represent a very large part of the atmospheric circulation on Mars. First two harmonic components (diurnal and semi-diurnal), with periods of 24 and 12 hr at the locations of InSight and Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) are represented here with the comparison to Mars Climate Database (MCD) predictions.

Both of these landers are located in the tropics, InSight on Elysium Planitia (4.5°N, 135.6°E) and MSL within the Gale Crater (4.6°S, 137.4°E). In this study, we utilized observations of the time period from Martian year (MY) 34 solar longitude (Ls) 296° to MY 36 Ls 53°. Diurnal amplitude was larger than semi-diurnal amplitude on both platforms and similar sensitivity to atmospheric dust content was found. However, the amplitude of the semi-diurnal component was smoother than the diurnal amplitude due to its sensitivity to global atmospheric dust content. One clear difference between the platforms was the average amplitude of the diurnal tide, which was 17 Pa for InSight and 33 Pa for MSL. Lateral hydrostatic adjustment flow, generated by the topography causes this difference since it increases the diurnal range of pressure within the Gale. Diurnal tide phase at the InSight was lower than that at the MSL, with averages of 03:39 and 04:25 LTST. In addition, MSL detected roughly contant diurnal tide phase, but InSight observed much more variation. Semi-diurnal phase pattern was very similar on both platforms.

Diurnal tide amplitude predicted by the MCD mimicked the observations quite well at both locations, except during MY 35 Ls 0°–180°. During that time, MCD amplitudes were lower than observed. This is very likely explained by the atmospheric dust conditions, due to the sensitivity of the diurnal tide to the local atmospheric dust loading. MCD dust optical depth was in good agreement with MSL observed optical depth during MY 35 Ls 180°–360°, but was lower than observed during MY 35 Ls 0°–180°. MCD semi-diurnal amplitudes mimicked the observations well throughout MY 35 due to its sensitivity to global atmospheric dust loading.

How to cite: Leino, J., Harri, A.-M., Banfield, D., de la Torre Juárez, M., Paton, M., Rodriguez-Manfredi, J.-A., Lemmon, M., and Savijärvi, H.: Atmospheric Tides Near the Equator on Mars, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-1333, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-1333, 2024.

The Zhurong rover conducted in-situ spectral investigations of southern Utopia Planitia, where orbital observations revealed the presence of spectrally featureless dust. However, in-situ reflectance spectra collected by the Short Wave Infrared (SWIR) spectrometer exhibit hydrated features for all observations along the traverse. These features have been interpreted as being associated with groundwater (Liu Y. et al., 2022) or ocean (Liu C. et al., 2022; Xiao et al., 2023) or atmospheric water (Zhao et al., 2023). Here, we combine the Multispectral Camera (MSCam) and SWIR data to characterize the spectra of landing site and provide some new insights into the surface composition diversity.

Multispectral images suggest that most of surfaces are consistent with the presence of dust whereas a few of rock surfaces exhibiting dark tones are compositionally distinct. The co-observational SWIR data can be used to further constrain the surface compositions. With Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and unmixing analysis of the SWIR data, we found that these dusty surfaces are ubiquitously characterized with faint 1900 and 2200 nm absorptions and the dark rock surfaces exhibit strong blue slopes in the NIR.

The hydrated dust features seem to contrast with previous knowledge, that the dust does not exhibit obvious NIR hydration features from orbital observations. Such discrepancies were also observed at Jezero crater, where the fine soils or dusty rocks exhibit a 1900 nm H₂O absorption but without 2200 nm band (Mandon et al., 2023). Spectral variation may reflect distinct surface dust compositions between the Perseverance and Zhurong landing site, indicating different dust reservoirs or dust alteration processes. The surface dust of different sites may be mixtures of globally well-mixed fine materials and local/regional distinct hydrated phases. Another possibilities is that the dust underwent different post-deposition aqueous alteration.

The dark rock surfaces may represent less dust-coated surfaces. The strong blue slope features have been previously attributed to coatings on a dark substrate. Furthermore, the morphological properties show that these surfaces exhibit relatively fragile surface context, consistent with surface coatings or rinds.

How to cite: Zhang, Q., Carter, J., Vincendon, M., Poulet, F., Pineau, M., Guo, L., Luo, Y., Liu, D., Bibring, J.-P., Liu, J., and Li, C.: New insight into the surface composition of Zhurong landing area, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-10193, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-10193, 2024.

Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometers (APXS) were an integral component of the science payload that flew on the twin Mars Exploration Rovers (MER) Spirit and Opportunity. An updated version of the MER APXS instrument, further optimized for in situ geochemical analyses on Mars, is currently operational within Gale crater onboard the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) rover Curiosity. APXS on MER and MSL were designed and calibrated for high-precision in situ analyses of geologic materials on Mars. The use of curium-244 sources provides high sensitivity to lower-Z elements. This low-Z sensitivity is important for characterizing the abundance of rock forming elements such as Na, but also enables analyses of Ar, which makes up ~2% of the Martian atmosphere, and thus ~40% all non-condensable gas species.

Atmospheric dynamics on Mars are driven in large part by condensation flow. The temperature and pressure at the winter pole leads to the deposition of carbon dioxide (which makes up ~95% of the atmosphere) onto the polar cap. The following spring, carbon dioxide sublimates from the cap, a cycle which creates a pressure gradient across the planet. Non-condensable gases, such as Ar, are not deposited on the polar cap and become enriched relative to carbon dioxide. Most environmental monitoring hardware flown to Mars can measure the absolute pressure of the atmosphere, but not specifically the abundance of non-condensable species. In the case of the Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument on MSL, atmospheric constituents can be deduced with great accuracy, but not with a high frequency.

We summarize efforts on MER and MSL to characterize variability in non-condensable gas density on Mars using instruments designed to measure the composition of rocks and regolith. Analyses by Spirit enabled calibration of the MER APXS for atmospheric analyses. The Opportunity mission, spanning ~5000 sols, acquired around 2250 hours of atmospheric data with its APXS. This data set revealed an annual short-lived Ar enrichment occurring around L_s 150, previously unreported in the literature and not present in climate models at that time. This phenomenon has since been regularly targeted on MSL with APXS (and SAM), with ~800 hours of atmospheric analyses conducted by APXS thus far. We report recent findings from Mars Year 37, where dedicated high-frequency APXS atmospheric campaigns were conducted, coinciding with solar conjunction and extended holiday plans, significantly improved constraints on the timing of this short-lived enrichment at Gale crater, and compare the observed results to those from Opportunity.

How to cite: VanBommel, S., Gellert, R., Berger, J., Christian, J., Knight, A., McCraig, M., O'Connell-Cooper, C., Thompson, L., Yen, A., and Boyd, N.: Monitoring Condensation Flow on Mars with Landed X-ray Spectrometers: A Summary of 11,000 Sols Across Three Landing Sites, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-12597, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-12597, 2024.

Highly variable ionospheric structures on Mars have been recently observed via spacecraft measurements. Acoustic-gravity waves (AGWs) could be an underlying mechanism. Studying the response of the Martian ionosphere to AGWs could provide us with an important understanding of the neutral wave-ionospheric coupling process. To explore the plasma-neutral coupling driven by AGWs in the lower ionosphere of Mars, a linearized wave model has been developed. This model can describe the propagation and dissipation of AGWs in a realistic atmosphere and first incorporates plasma behaviors associated with photochemistry and electromagnetic fields. We adopted a full-wave model as the first part of our coupled model to delineate wave propagation in a realistic atmosphere. The second part of our model consists of the governing equations describing the plasma behaviors. Therefore, our model not only replicates the result of the full-wave model but also investigates the wave-driven variations in the plasma velocity and density, electromagnetic field, and thermal structures. Our model results reveal that ions are mainly dragged by neutrals and oscillate along the wave phase line below ~200 km altitude. Electrons are primarily subject to gyro-motion along magnetic field lines. The wave-driven distinct motions among charged particles can generate the perturbed electric current and electric field, further contributing to localized magnetic field fluctuations. Major charged constituents, including electrons, O⁺, O₂⁺, and CO₂⁺, have higher density amplitudes when interacting with larger-periodic waves. The presence of photochemistry leads to a decrease in the plasma density amplitude, and there exists a moderate correlation between plasma density variations and those in the neutrals. Our numerical results indicate that the wave-driven variations range from several percent to ~ 80% in the plasma density and from ~ 0.2% to 17% in the magnetic field, which are consistent with the spacecraft observations. Further calculations reveal that the wave-induced plasma-neutral coupling can heat the neutrals yet cool the plasmas. Electrons are cooler than ions in the coupling process. The wave-driven heating by neutral-ion collisions exceeds that by neutral-electron collisions but tends to be lower than the wave dissipative heating and photochemical heating. Our model has potential applications in studying the AGWs-driven variable ionospheric structures and can be used for other planets.

How to cite: Wang, X., Xu, X., Cui, J., Yi, S., Gu, H., Zhou, Z., Man, H., Luo, L., He, P., and Yang, P.: A Linearized Coupled Model of Acoustic-gravity Waves and the Lower Ionosphere at Mars, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-7015, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-7015, 2024.

We report two extreme cases of clouds in Mars, on the one hand what we call “isolated dot clouds” and on the other hand new cases of extremely “elongated long and narrow clouds” reminiscent in their shape of the one that develops in Arsia Mons. We use the images obtained by the VMC-camera on board the Mars Express mission that from its advantageous polar elliptical orbit allows to image Mars at different local times (in particular at twilight hours).

We present the properties of the “dot clouds” that develop abundantly in the Terra Cimmeria region, particularly around the Kepler crater (longitude 140.9 East and 46.8 South) in Mars solar longitudes Ls from 30 to 100 deg. These are compact rounded clouds with sizes of about 50 km in diameter and altitudes in the range 50-80 km as measured from their shadows. Sometimes they appear isolated at dawn, others in twilight clusters, but we also present a singular case in which they exhibited a ringed shape. We discuss possible mechanisms underlying their formation, such as convection and the possible intervention of the crustal magnetic field concentrated in this region.  On the other hand, we report new cases of extremely narrow and elongated clouds observed at mid and high latitudes in both hemispheres. We study in particular the properties of these clouds in the volcanic region of Alba Patera, in Thaumasia Highlands and in Lyot crater, where they can reached lengths from 1,000 km to 2,000 km and widths of 50 km.  

How to cite: Sanchez-Lavega, A., Hernandez-Bernal, J., Larsen, E., del Rio-Gaztelurrutia, T., Sánchez-Cano, B., and Määttäanen, A.: Mars Singular Clouds: Dots, Rings and Narrow-Elongated, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-10357, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-10357, 2024.

While extensive studies have been conducted on Mars' dayside airglow emissions using instruments of various missions (Mariner, Mars Express, MAVEN, TGO and EMM), only the ultraviolet and infrared emissions have been investigated on the nightside (MEx and MAVEN). The middle ultraviolet spectrum is dominated by the v’=0 δ and γ bands of nitric oxide excited by radiative association of nitrogen and oxygen atoms. Although this emission is present at all latitudes and local times, extensive mapping has shown that it is enhanced in winter at high latitudes in both hemispheres (Schneider et al., 2020). This seasonal brightening at high latitudes is the signature of the global transport of O and N atoms ascending from the sunlit summer polar regions that are carried downward by vertical winds and diffusion to the 40-60 km region of the dark winter hemisphere. The O₂ nightglow at 1.27 μm has already been monitored as well (Bertaux et al., 2012). However, nightglow emissions in the visible domain have begun only very recently with the NOMAD-UVIS instrument, which can, for the first time, simultaneously monitor the UV and visible domains in the Martian atmosphere. Gérard et al. (2023) have discovered the presence of the (0,5) to (0,11) bands of the O₂ Herzberg II system between 400 and 650 nm in the nightglow. We present here a comprehensive statistical analysis of this nightglow based on a dedicated NOMAD-UVIS campaign of 30 orbits acquired between May and October 2023 in the southern hemisphere during the winter season. Combining both the inertial and limb tracking modes allows for intensity retrieval, latitudinal variability analysis, and the generation of limb profiles.

The O₂ emission is expected to solely originate from the three-body recombination of O atoms O + O + M → O₂* + M.  The oxygen density can therefore directly be retrieved from the Herzberg II observations. Furthermore, simultaneous NO nightglow observations with NOMAD-UVIS combined with the retrieved oxygen density, allows to calculate the nitrogen density and its downward flux. As atomic oxygen serves as a precursor to both NO and O₂ nightglows, arising from O atom recombination with either oxygen or nitrogen, this dual investigation presents a remarkable opportunity to unravel their shared characteristics (stemming from oxygen density) and their distinguishing features (emanating from nitrogen), including variations in brightness and altitudes. It will provide valuable constraints for improving 3-D models that simulate global circulation and dynamic processes. In particular, it will help solving the current discrepancy between the predicted and modeled altitude distribution of the NO nightglow, a proxy of insufficiently vigorous downward transport of N atoms.

References:

Bertaux et al. (2012), First detection of O₂ 1.27 µm nightglow emission at Mars with OMEGA/MEX and comparison with general circulation model predictions, JGR, 117, E00J04, doi:10.1029/2011JE003890.

Gérard et al. (2023). Observation of the Mars O2 visible nightglow by the NOMAD spectrometer onboard the Trace Gas Orbiter. Nature Astronomy, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-023-02104-8

Schneider et al. (2020) Imaging of Martian circulation patterns and atmospheric tides through MAVEN/IUVS nightglow observations. JGR Space Physics 125(8), e2019JA027318.

How to cite: Soret, L., Gérard, J.-C., González-Galindo, F., Thomas, I., Ristic, B., Vandaele, A.-C., and Hubert, B.: Probing the Mars upper atmosphere through simultaneous NOMAD/UVIS observations of the NO ultraviolet and O2 visible nightglow, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-9716, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-9716, 2024.

By utilizing progress in millijoule-level pulsed fiber lasers operating in the 1.96 µm spectral range, we propose a novel concept introducing a differential absorption barometric lidar designed for remote sensing of Martian atmospheric properties on an orbiter. Our emphasis is on the online wavelength situated in the trough region of two absorption lines, chosen for its insensitivity to laser frequency variations, thereby mitigating the need for stringent laser frequency stability. Our investigation centers around a compact lidar configuration, featuring reduced telescope dimensions and lower laser pulse energies. These adjustments are aimed at minimizing costs for potential forthcoming Mars missions.

The primary measurement objectives include determining column CO2 absorption optical depth, columnar CO2 abundance, surface atmospheric pressure, as well as vertical distributions of dust and cloud layers. By combining surface pressure data with atmospheric temperature insights obtained from sounders and utilizing the barometric formula, the prospect of deducing atmospheric pressure profiles becomes feasible. Simulation studies validate the viability of our approach. Notably, the precision of Martian surface pressure measurements is projected to better than 1 Pa when the aerial dust optical depth is anticipated to be under 0.7, a typical airborne dust scenario on Mars, considering a horizontal averaging span of 10 km.

How to cite: Liu, Z., Campell, J., Lin, B., Yu, J., Geng, J., and Jiang, S.: Remote Sensing of Column CO2, Atmospheric Pressure, and Vertical Distribution of Dust and Clouds on Mars using Differential Absorption Lidar at 1.96 µm on an Orbiter, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-3253, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-3253, 2024.

The NOMAD (“Nadir and Occultation for MArs Discovery”) spectrometer suite onboard the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO) is composed of three spectrometers. In this work, we will use the UVIS channel in occultation mode. An aerosol climatology had been produced covering the second half of MY 34 up to the end of MY 36. 
Aerosols are an important part of the Martian atmosphere and have a strong relationship with the atmospheric temperature. They are composed of dust, H2O ice, and CO2 ice. Dust is the main aerosol and has a significant contribution to the radiative transfer budget, as it absorbs solar radiation, leading to local heating of the atmosphere. Dust is confined to lower altitudes during the aphelion season and can reach higher altitudes during the perihelion, especially during dust storms that frequently arise on Mars during this period. The ice clouds are more present during the aphelion when the temperature is colder and follow a seasonal pattern. Several types of clouds can be found throughout the year, contrary to the dust they reflect the sunlight and cool locally the atmosphere. 
Using only the spectral range of UVIS dust, H2O ice, and CO2 ice cannot be differentiated because the three aerosols have similar spectral features in the UV-visible. Dust represents most of the aerosols present in the atmosphere, therefore only dust refractive indices are used in this work. Detection of CO2 and water ice will be investigated in future work using the infrared channel of NOMAD. Nevertheless, we presented a way of indirectly recognizing the composition of the aerosols using indirect parameters such as the temperature or comparison with other datasets.It is possible to distinguish the particle size between 0.1 to 0.8 µm with confidence. When the particles are larger it is not possible to retrieve the precise size. 
In conclusion we present a climatology of Martian aerosols, including vertical extinction profiles as well as vertical profiles of particle size distributions. The seasonal cycle of the dust is observed and recurring structures over different Martian years such as dust storms or ice clouds are detected. We also present a comparison with water vapor profiles and aerosol profiles during regional dust storms, we showed that the water vapor during the storm could condense to water ice due to the presence of dust condensation nuclei at high altitudes. The thermal and dynamical structure of the atmosphere, and chemical species are all sensitive to the aerosol’s abundance and size.

How to cite: flimon, Z., Erwin, J., Robert, S., Neary, L., Piccialli, A., Trompet, L., Willame, Y., Daerden, F., Bauduin, S., Wolff, M., Thomas, I., Ristic, B., Bellucci, G., Patel, M., Depiesse, C., Vandaele, A.-C., Mason, J., Lopez-Moreno, J. J., and Vanhellemont, F.: Martian aerosol Climatology on Mars as Observed by NOMAD UVIS on ExoMars TGO, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-17539, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-17539, 2024.

We have developed a new version of the IPSL Titan GCM, now called the Titan Planetary Climate Model (Titan PCM), including a new microphysical model for haze and clouds. Observations of Titan have long revealed the presence of seasonal cycles on Titan (haze, clouds, organic compounds), the ins and outs of which are still poorly understood. In particular, the lack of information on the different flows that govern these cycles prevents us from understanding all the phenomena taking place in Titan’s atmosphere. The need to develop a complete climate model, including microphysics, therefore becomes essential.

The latest improvements in the Titan PCM radiative transfer, now based on a flexible correlated-k method and up-to-date gases spectroscopic data, lead to a better modelling of the temperature profiles in the middle atmosphere. The photochemical solver extends computation of the composition above the top of the PCM (roughly 500 km) up to 1300 km. Radiative transfer is coupled with a new microphysics model in moments. This model includes phenomena such as the nucleation and condensation of clouds, and precipitation that shape the satellite’s landscape.

We are now able to model the processes involved in the formation of tropospheric (CH4) and polar (C2H2, C2H6 and HCN) clouds on Titan. Cloud formation induces new seasonal cycles, particularly at the tropopause where clouds empty the lower layers of the atmosphere of aerosols, featuring two boundary, the main haze layer and a layer of condensed organic compounds. Higher up, in the lower stratosphere, the haze follows a new cycle constrained solely by the circulation, leading to a better modelling of the temperature profiles in the low stratosphere and the troposphere.

From the results of coupled simulations, we can discuss multiple questions raised by observations. Special interest is bear on the overall control of the thermal structure, and impact of the coupling on equinoctial circulation reversal. We also discuss the radiative destabilization of the lower polar winter stratosphere, observed by Cassini radio-occultations.

How to cite: Lebonnois, S., de Batz de Trenquelleon, B., Rosset, L., Vatant d'Ollone, J., and Rannou, P.: The Titan PCM : a fully coupled climate model to study thermal structures, haze, clouds and their seasonal variations, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-16561, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-16561, 2024.

We present numerical studies of star/planet interactions, specifically the effects of Stellar Energetic Particles (SEPs) on the atmospheres of terrestrial (exo)planets. This work was performed as part of the INCREASE project (INfluence of strong stellar particle Events and galactic Cosmic Rays on Exoplanetary AtmoSpherEs) funded by the German Research Council (DFG).

We have developed and applied a new Model Suite which couples magnetospheric and atmospheric propagation and interaction models PLANETOCOSMICS (Desorgher et al. 2006) and AtRIS (Banjac et al. 2019) with the atmospheric chemistry and climate models 1D-TERRA (e.g., Wunderlich et al. 2020) and ExoTIC (Sinnhuber et al., 2012).

We are able to assess the influence of the stellar activity on the planetary atmospheric structure, its chemical composition, and infer spectroscopic observables as well as the effects on biosignatures.

How to cite: Grenfell, L., Iro, N., Sinnhuber, M., herbst, K., Bartenschlager, A., Scherer, K., and Taysum, B.: Modelling Stellar Energetic Particles effects on the atmospheres of terrestrial (exo)planets: INCREASE, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-19629, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-19629, 2024.