A national-scale assessment of pharmaceutical and other organic compounds (CECs) in groundwater (Slovenia)

Pharmaceuticals and anthropogenic organic compounds are crucial to healthcare and agriculture but are also increasingly recognized as environmental contaminants with significant environmental and public health impacts. These substances enter groundwater through different pathways such as wastewater discharge, agricultural runoff and landfill leachate, posing challenges for groundwater quality and ecosystem integrity. This study investigates the presence, distribution and temporal trends of pharmaceutical contaminants in groundwater resources, using Slovenia as an example?. Between 2014 and 2024, groundwater samples were collected at over 100 sites across urban, industrial and agricultural regions, in karst and intergranular aquifers in the scope of state monitoring programs, following strict protocols to ensure reliability. Compounds such as caffeine, carbamazepine and sulfamethoxazole exhibited consistently high detection frequencies, highlighting their persistence and environmental significance. Conversely, other compounds were often present at concentrations below the limit of detection (LOD). The findings underscore the influence of aquifer type and land use on contamination pathways and emphasize the need for comprehensive monitoring frameworks and targeted mitigation strategies to safeguard groundwater resources and public health.