Paleoenvironmental and settlement history of ancient Bubastis, southeastern Nile Delta (Egypt)

Bubastis, one of the most significant cities in the southeastern Nile Delta, was continuously inhabited from approximately 3200 B.C.E. until its decline around 200 C.E. Over the past century, archaeological research at Bubastis has uncovered temples, palaces, residences, and cemeteries in the western, northern, and central parts of the site. Despite these discoveries, detailed information about the living quarters of the city's inhabitants and their geomorphological context remains sparse. However, surface pottery discovered in the eastern part of the site, along with historical accounts such as those by Herodotus, indicate that the city’s center likely shifted to this area during its later phases, spanning the Late Period through the Roman Period.

To investigate the Holocene landscape evolution and occupation history of the region, geophysical and geomorphological surveys were carried out in 2023 and 2024. These included 76 drillings, 24 2D and Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) measurements, 32 1D Direct Current Resistivity (DCR) soundings in the eastern and the northern part of ancient Bubastis. To reconstruct the land-use history, 110 samples from 12 drill cores were analyzed for phytolith content.

The findings revealed several sandy “Gezira” hills, dating from the Late Pleistocene to Early Holocene, scattered across the northern, central, and eastern parts of the study area. These elevated landforms later became sites for various structures. Floodplain deposits associated with the Bilqas Formation suggest that the region was periodically inundated by Nile floods, likely originating from the nearby Pelusiac or Tanitic Nile branches during the Middle and Late Holocene.

Human activity in the region began with the occupation of Bubastis around 3250 B.C.E. Prominent Gezira mounds in the western and northern parts of ancient Bubastis were the sites for palaces, temples and cemeteries spanning from the Old Kingdom (c. 2570–2180 B.C.E.) to the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 B.C.E.). The Temple of Bastet was situated on the central Gezira mound, with evidence of its existence dating back to at least the Old Kingdom, while the eastern area was predominantly used for agricultural purposes. From the Late Period (c. 664–332 B.C.E.), eastward from the central Gezira, although the easternmost part of the area likely continued to be used for agriculture. During this time, the so-called Temple of Hermes was constructed atop a local Gezira mound at the eastern edge of the site. Settlement activity continued into the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods (c. 332 B.C.E.–200 C.E.), characterized by significant urban development in the central part of the study area. Here, anthropogenic layers up to ~950 cm thick were uncovered, reflecting the construction and reconstruction of multi-story clay brick houses. Meanwhile, agricultural zones likely shifted to the surrounding floodplain areas.

The modern landscape, characterized by gently undulating terrain and scattered vegetation, still preserves traces of Bubastis’ history, including the ruins of the Temple of Bastet and remnants of collapsed mud-brick walls on the southeastern Tell. In contrast, the Temple of Hermes and the original Gezira mounds have become indistinguishable in the current terrain.