How to cite: Hakkola, S., Teikari, J., Korkiakoski, M., Pihlatie, M., Polvinen, T., and Aaltonen, H.: Fire-driven shifts in nitrous oxide emissions in boreal peatland soils , EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-10870, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-10870, 2026.

Methane (CH₄) is a potent greenhouse gas, and microorganisms play a crucial role in its cycling. While soil microbial processes are well studied, the microbial basis of CH₄ production and oxidation within tree tissues remains poorly understood. Trees play an active role in forest CH₄ exchange, yet studies on tree-associated microbial contributions are only beginning to emerge.  In this study, we aimed to assess the abundance of CH₄-cycling genes in shoots (leaves and terminal branches) and wood cores of four tree categories: European beech (Fagus sylvatica), European hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), birch (Betula pendula and Betula pubescens), and Norway spruce (Picea abies) along a transect spanning temperate to subarctic regions. We assessed CH₄ exchange through shoot incubation experiments and measured internal CH₄ concentrations in stem wood. Targeted metagenomic approach was used to analyze the relative abundance of CH₄-cycling genes. Our study revealed that among shoots, birch, spruce and beech showed potential CH₄ emissions, while hornbeam indicated potential CH₄ consumption in the incubation study. Beech had the highest internal stem wood CH₄ concentration, and hornbeam the lowest when compared to the ambient concentration. Metagenomic analysis confirmed the presence of key methanogen and methanotroph genes in both tissues. Soluble CH₄ monooxygenase gene (mmoX) were most abundant in birch shoots and spruce shoots. In addition, CH₄ exchanges showed strong positive correlation with shoot ammonia, whereas CH₄ concentration on stem wood showed strong positive association with particulate CH₄ monooxygenase (pmoA) and methanogen-to-methanotroph gene ratio. These findings provide new insights into tree microbiome and its contribution to CH₄ exchange in forest ecosystem.

How to cite: Thiyagarasaiyar, K., Paul, D., kerttula, J., Keski-Karhu, M., Soosaar, K., Mander, Ü., Machacova, K., Pumpanen, J., and Siljanen, H.: Methane Exchange and Microbial Functional Potential in Forest Tree Tissues, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-4387, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-4387, 2026.

Nitrous oxide (N₂O) is a strong greenhouse gas with the capacity of depleting ozone layer. Nitrous oxide is naturally produced in nitrogen cycle by microbial processes, but anthropogenic activities have increased the emissions to the atmosphere. Agricultural soil management and excessive use of nitrogen fertilizers are the main reason for increased emissions. Nitrous oxide reductase (nosZ) is a key gene required for the reduction of N₂O and the consumption of it through microbial processes.

The aim of this work was to observe the effects of increased concentration of N₂O to the activation on nosZ genes in microbes from leaf samples. The samples from labelling experiment enabled detecting, whether ¹⁵N-N₂O labelling affected the nitrogen isotope ratio of the plant tissues. The quantitative analysis of nosZ and 16S rRNA genes was used to evaluate the transcription and activity of the genes. The composition of the microbial population of nosZ genes was determined from data obtained from amplicon sequencing with Illumina Miseq using bioinformatic analysing.

The results showed that amplification of clade I was successful in most of the samples, and there was moderate positive correlation between transcription of clade I and nitrogen fixation to the biomass. Clade II amplified only in one sample. Sequencing analyses revealed a wide range of microbial species with nosZ clade I gene, including species associated with nitrogen fixation.

How to cite: Siljanen, H., Kerttula, J., Thiyagarasaiyar, K., Paul, D., Keski-Karhu, M., Soosaar, K., Mander, Ü., Machacova, K., and Kohl, L.: Active microbial nitrous oxide consumption captures nitrogen for plant tissues , EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-18971, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-18971, 2026.

Methane (CH₄) is a potent greenhouse gas and the second most important contributor to the Earth’s warming after carbon dioxide (CO₂). Atmospheric methane concentrations have nearly tripled since pre-industrial times, exceeding 1,930 ppb in 2025, and its radiative forcing is approximately 28-30 times greater than that of CO₂ over a 100-year time scale. As a result, methane is at the centre of the climate agenda, led by the Global Methane Pledge (GMP) launched at COP26. Owing to its relatively short atmospheric lifespan ranging from 7 to 12 years, methane concentration is highly sensitive to changes in the balance between its sources and sinks.

Soils have long been recognised as the primary terrestrial methane sink alongside atmospheric oxidation. However, recent observations suggest that trees growing in free-draining soils may constitute an overlooked and potentially significant methane sink. Despite its possible importance, the magnitude, drivers, and global relevance of this tree-mediated methane uptake remain poorly constrained, introducing substantial uncertainty into current methane budget estimates. This knowledge gap is particularly pronounced in temperate forests, where evidence of tree methane uptake is limited to only two tree species (Fraxinus excelsior and Acer pseudoplatanus), leaving the broader sink potential of these ecosystems largely unexplored.

Here, we present preliminary results on spatial and temporal variability of stem methane fluxes measured across multiple UK native and non-native tree species in newly planted forests under contrasting forest management approaches, including monoculture and mixed-species woodlands.  This experiment is conducted at the Norbury Park Estate, Shropshire (central England), close to the Birmingham Institute of Forest Research (BIFoR) FACE facility. These data will provide new insights into potential drivers of tree-mediated methane uptake in temperate forests and help assess the additional climate benefits of forest expansion under different planting strategies.

How to cite: Rabbai, A., Ordoñez, A., Barba, J., Robinson, A., Dryburgh, A., and Gauci, V.: Hidden Figures: how tree species shape methane uptake in temperate forests., EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-5842, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-5842, 2026.

Trees are known to emit and consume methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O), important greenhouse gases (GHGs). Most studies have focused on stems, whereas the role of tree leaves in forest CH₄ and N₂O exchange remains unknown. In recent decades, forests have been responding to changing environmental conditions, including increasing/elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide (eCO₂). However, the long-term effect of eCO₂ on tree CH₄ and N₂O exchange is almost unknown.  

We suggested that the conserved stomatal behavior under eCO₂ may directly affect N₂O and CH₄ fluxes from leaves or stems by altering transpiration, carbon assimilation and allocation, and indirectly soil N₂O and CH₄ fluxes by altering soil moisture and root exudation patterns.

At the Birmingham Institute of Forest Research’s Free Air CO₂ Enrichment (BIFoR-FACE) facility, we studied i) CH₄, N₂O and CO₂ exchange from soils, and stems and shoots of mature Common Hazel (Corylus avellana), and ii) the long-term effect of eCO₂ on this GHG exchange. The facility dominated by English Oak with sub-canopy hazel includes three arrays with +150 ppm CO₂ enrichment above the ambient (eCO₂) and three arrays under ambient CO₂ (aCO₂).

We measured GHG exchange from three hazel trees and three soil positions in each array and in one sunny aCO₂ plot in June 2025. Hazel trees at all arrays grow under low photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). Photosynthesis and transpiration were measured in parallel to GHG fluxes at all studied trees. The gas exchange was studied using static chamber systems and portable LiCOR analysers. 

The soil was a sink for CH₄ and a source for N₂O and CO₂. The nine years of eCO₂ enrichment tended to reduce the soil CH₄ uptake by 55%, and significantly increased soil N₂O and CO₂ emissions by 93 and 62%, respectively. The stem emissions of CH₄, N₂O and CO₂ were not affected by eCO₂. However, trees growing under sunny conditions showed significantly higher stem CO₂ efflux than shaded trees. The shoots were CH₄ sources irrespective of eCO₂ treatment. The shoots turned from being an N₂O source under aCO₂ to a weak N₂O sink under eCO₂ (non-significant change). The leaves exposed to eCO₂ showed higher CO₂ assimilation and transpiration rates compared to aCO₂. However, the leaves growing under sunny ambient conditions demonstrated much higher physiological activity than leaves under shaded ambient conditions. The eCO₂ seems to partly compensate the low PAR intensities at arrays, and approximates the light curve to the sunny leaves.

Concluded, eCO₂ seems to affect the GHG fluxes from soils rather than from hazel stems and shoots. The tree CO₂ exchange tends to be more related to PAR conditions than to the atmospheric CO₂ levels, mainly due to shaded conditions at arrays.  

Acknowledgement

This research was supported by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of CR within programs LU-INTER-EXCELLENCE II [LUC23162] and CzeCOS [LM2023048], and project AdAgriF-Advanced methods of greenhouse gases emission reduction and sequestration in agriculture and forest landscape for climate change mitigation [CZ.02.01.01/00/22_008/0004635]. We thank Robert Grzesik and Kris Hart from BIFoR-FACE for all their field support.

How to cite: Machacova, K., Klem, K., Medňanský, T., Warlo, H., and Ullah, S.: Effect of elevated atmospheric CO2 concentration on greenhouse gas exchange of common hazel trees and soils, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-2737, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-2737, 2026.

There is substantial uncertainty regarding how different components of mature forests respond to rising atmospheric CO₂ concentrations under ongoing climate change. Tree stems, in particular, may act as increased carbon sinks due to enhanced growth under CO₂ fertilization, but they may also release more CO₂ as a consequence of higher metabolic rates and accelerated carbon cycling. Here, we investigated stem CO₂ fluxes in a mature oak (Quercus robur) stand exposed to elevated CO₂ since 2016 as part of a Free-Air CO₂ Enrichment experiment (BIFoR FACE, UK; +150 ppm above ambient concentrations). Stem CO₂ fluxes were measured over one year through monthly campaigns at 1.3 m height, and seasonally along the stem profile up to 4 m height. Stem CO₂ fluxes exhibited a pronounced seasonal pattern, with higher rates during the growing season, a decline in autumn, and consistently low fluxes during winter. However, neither the magnitude nor the seasonal dynamics of stem CO₂ fluxes were affected by elevated CO₂. Furthermore, partitioning total stem fluxes into maintenance respiration (associated with the metabolism of living stem tissues) and growth respiration (associated with the biosynthesis of new stem cells) revealed no significant response of either component to elevated CO₂. Stem CO₂ fluxes also showed no consistent vertical gradient along the stem, and this pattern was similarly unaffected by CO₂ enrichment. Overall, these findings indicate a strong functional resilience of stem CO₂ fluxes in mature trees to elevated atmospheric CO₂. This resilience may have important implications for predicting forest carbon balance responses to future climate conditions, particularly in mature temperate forests.

How to cite: Barba, J., Rabbai, A., Salomon, R., Curioni, G., and Gauci, V.: Strong resilience of stem CO2 fluxes from a mature temperate forest under elevated atmospheric CO2, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-22270, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-22270, 2026.

European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) is a both native and extensively cultivated species found in Central and Southeast Europe's upland forests. These beech forests soils are known to emit nitrous oxide (N₂O), sequester methane (CH₄), and release carbon dioxide (CO₂), individually influenced by specific site conditions. The interplay of nitrogen (N) and carbon cycling, along with greenhouse gas (GHG) turnover in these forests, is affected by N deposition, but the long-term effects of N-deposition on GHG exchange involving soil and mature trees are not well understood.

We examined how simulated increased N-deposition affects GHG emissions and soil N-composition in a pre-alpine eutrophic beech forest in Northeastern Italy, subjected to high N-addition. Since 2015, the site has undergone N-manipulation involving four treatments with three replicates: control (N0, ambient N-deposition), above canopy N-addition (N30A, 30 kg/ha*yr N), and soil N-addition at 30 and 60 kg/ha*yr, respectively (N30 and N60). For this study, one plot for each treatment was considered. In September 2023, we measured N₂O, CH₄, and CO₂ fluxes from stems and accompanying soil, and analyzed soil samples for biological and physico-chemical properties.

Beech stems acted as net CH₄ sinks and CO₂ sources, with limited N₂O exchange, unaffected by nine years of artificial N-treatment. Similarly, soil CO₂ emissions remained unchanged, but soil CH₄ uptake increased by 40% in N30 and N60 plots. Conversely, N-treated plots showed significantly lower soil N₂O emissions than controls (nearly 50-fold difference). High flux variability suggests that the observed effects cannot be solely ascribed to N-treatment, likely due to the influence of complex micro-topography.

Soil analyses revealed that N-addition strongly affected soil chemistry, and microbial functional diversity. Control plots maintained higher concentrations of nitrate, nitrite, and total dissolved inorganic nitrogen, indicating enhanced N-consumption or transformation rates under elevated inputs. The N-addition reorganized the microbial community, marked by increased richness and evenness and a shift towards reductive processes, confirmed by the enrichment of genes associated with assimilatory and dissimilatory nitrate reduction and denitrification. Furthermore, carbon cycle responses included increased methanotrophic capacity in N60, evidenced by pmoA gene enrichment, while this effect was absent in canopy-applied treatments.

Overall, while long-term N-addition did not significantly alter GHG stem fluxes, it facilitated greater soil CH₄ uptake through increased microbial methane oxidation capacities and caused substantial restructuring of microbial communities with increased N-reduction potential.

This research was supported by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of CR within the programs LU-INTER-EXCELLENCE II [LUC23162] and CzeCOS [LM2023048], project AdAgriF-Advanced methods of greenhouse gases emission reduction and sequestration in agriculture and forest landscape for climate change mitigation [CZ.02.01.01/00/22_008/0004635], and by the Spanish Government grants PID2024-162617NB-I00 funded by MCIN, AEI/10.13039/ 501100011033 EU Next Generation EU/PRTR

How to cite: Schindler, T., Lopez-Sanchez, C., Mattana, S., Warlo, H., Guerrieri, R., Ribas, A., and Machacova, K.: Long-Term Nitrogen Addition Reshapes Methane and Nitrous Oxide Fluxes and Microbial Functional Potential in European Beech Forest Soil, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-8335, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-8335, 2026.

Atmospheric methane (CH₄) concentrations are rising globally, and evidence suggests natural sources may be responsible. Forests represent the largest terrestrial sink in the global CH₄ budget, however CH₄ emissions from certain forest ecosystems – wet woodlands (i.e. forested wetlands) – remain poorly constrained. Due to their hydrology, the anoxic soils in wet woodlands provide suitable conditions for methanogenesis. Little is known about the spatial or temporal patterns of CH₄ flux in these ecosystems, and the environmental variables that drive these, due to insufficient understanding of biogeochemical mechanisms and limited observations.

To address this, we used hourly-resolved automatic chambers, complimented by a greater expanse of monthly manual chambers to compare CH₄ and carbon dioxide (CO₂) flux to soil parameters in a temperate wet woodland (Wakehurst, Sussex, UK). From observations over two years, we show that soil temperature is the dominant control of CH₄ flux from the wet woodland soil once within high soil moisture (>40%) or water table depth (WTD) (< 0.2m); at lower moisture, changes in WTD and moisture determine CH₄ flux. Large seasonal variations were present, where CH₄ emissions peaked in summer months (44.05 ±1.15 nmolm^-2s^-1 (mean)), and reduced in winter (7.54 ± 0.078 nmolm^-2s^-1 (mean)), with measurements in drier soil moving from source to sink. A diurnal cycle in CH₄ flux positively correlated with soil temperature was revealed, with diurnal and seasonal variation comparable in magnitude, highlighting the importance of high temporal resolution flux measurements. Diurnal cycles changed significantly on the hottest days (>90^th percentile soil temperature), with diurnal amplitudes of CH₄ higher (~100 ppb) than the general trend (~20 ppb).

The large spatial, seasonal and diurnal variability in methane flux we report are significant for quantifying and understanding CH₄ emissions from these small fragmented forest ecosystems, which are currently highly uncertain or missing in model estimates. The relationship to soil temperature suggests rising summer temperatures may lead to an increase in summer CH₄ emissions in future climate scenarios, and highlights the importance of constraining and understanding this ecosystem within the global CH₄ budget.

How to cite: Batten, S., Egan, G., Lee, M., Fisher, R., Milner, A., Wilkes, P., Davidson, S., and Lowry, D.: Constraining temporal and spatial variations of methane flux in a temperate wet woodland , EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-13079, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-13079, 2026.

Living trees in forests emit or consume methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) through their stems. These stem fluxes can originate directly from the internal tissues, or co-occur from soils and stems. However, the magnitudes, origins, and biogeochemical pathways of these fluxes remain poorly understood.

In our study, we aimed to investigate whether tropical forest habitats (upland versus seasonally flooded areas), tree species and composition of the microbial communities living in the sapwood influence the stem fluxes of CH₄ and N₂O.

To address this, we measured the in situ CH₄ and N₂O fluxes in the stems of thirteen tropical tree species using static chambers. We investigated the microbial communities in the sapwood by sequencing the 16S rDNA of bacteria and archaea on an Illumina MiSeq platform. Measurements were taken in two contrasting habitats: well-drained, nutrient-poor soil in an upland area, and waterlogged, nutrient-rich soil in a seasonally flooded area of a tropical forest in French Guiana. Fluxes, woody tissue microbial communities, and related tree traits were measured during the wet season.

Overall, we observed a significant effect of forest habitat on sapwood microbial communities, which remained relatively consistent within specific tree species. Stem fluxes per unit of stem surface area were approximately 2.5 times higher for CH₄ and lower for N₂O in the seasonally flooded forest, compared to the upland forest. Variability in these fluxes was observed not only between the two forest habitats, but also among and within tree species. Surprisingly, methanotrophs and methanotrophs were barely detectable, and denitrifiers and nitrifiers were also scarce in the stem tissues, despite the high CH₄ and, to a lesser extent, N₂O emissions measured on the stem surfaces. This suggests that, in our site, CH₄ and N₂O fluxes mainly result from processes occurring in the heartwood, bark, soil, or a combination of these. Further research is needed to shed light on the microbial mechanisms underlying the exchange of CH₄ and N₂O between the trees and the atmosphere in tropical forest ecosystems.

How to cite: Bréchet, L., Stahl, C., Le Noir de Carlan, C., Richter, A., Bonal, D., Janssens, I., and Verbruggen, E.: Tree species and forest habitat shape stem methane and nitrous oxide fluxes and sapwood microbial communities, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-22794, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-22794, 2026.

Tropical ecosystems are major contributors to global methane (CH₄) emissions, yet substantial uncertainties remain in both top-down and bottom-up estimates. Such uncertainties partly can be attributed to limited understanding of various emissions and uptake pathways in tropical ecosystem. Most field measurement of CH₄ focused solely on soil-atmosphere exchange, overlooking other exchange pathways. Furthermore, several studies from natural forest ecosystem confirmed significant CH₄ emission from tree stems. However, such quantification remains scarce in tropical forest plantations, which constitute significant proportion of current land use. A better quantitative and process-based understanding of CH₄ emissions, removals, and transport pathways is therefore essential for improving regional and global CH₄ budgets and mitigation strategies, especially under changing climate and land use.

In this study, we measured soil and stem CH₄ fluxes from two managed plantation forests (Acacia and Eucalyptus plantations) and two natural forests ecosystem (peat swamp forests and riparian forests) in Sumatra, Indonesia. We used LI-8200-01S (LICOR, USA) for soil and semi-rigid chambers made with polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic sheets for stem measurements. We used LI-7810 (LICOR, USA), connected to the chambers during the measurement period to measure the CH₄ concentration. The fluxes were calculated using a linear function of changes in CH₄ concentration during incubation time.

The preliminary result shows that plantation emits significantly smaller CH₄ from both soil and stem compared to respective natural forested ecosystems, indicating that land-use change substantially alter the methane production, consumption, and transport processes. We observed a clear decreasing stem CH₄ fluxes with increasing stem height in both ecosystems on peat, strongly suggest a soil-originated CH₄ transport mechanism. Interestingly, no significant difference between stem height was detected in Eucalyptus plantations and adjacent riparian forests. Tree stems acted as net CH₄ sources across all ecosystems. Soil surfaces functioned as CH₄ sources in peatland ecosystems but as net CH₄ sinks in Eucalyptus plantations and adjacent riparian forests. These results demonstrate strong contrasts in soil–stem CH₄ dynamics between peatland and non-peatland ecosystems in tropics. Comprehensive, pathway-specific assessments are therefore required to reduce uncertainties in tropical CH₄ budgets.

How to cite: Gunawan, S., Nurholis, N., Nardi, N., Susanto, A. P., Ramadhanti, S., Kusumawardhani, S. D., Wenadi, R., Samosir, A. G. A., Jurgen, K. Y., Rohayani, P., Jabbar, A., Pertiwi, N., Kurnianto, S., Gauci, V., Barba, J., Agus, F., and Deshmukh, C. S.: Multi-pathway methane and nitrous oxide emissions from Acacia plantations on tropical peatlands, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-8685, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-8685, 2026.

The fluxes of different greenhouse gas (GHG) species have long been studied using a variety of techniques, with the choice of method largely determined by the measurement scale. Small-scale fluxes such as soil chamber measurements may be made using closed transient approaches, whereas direct micrometeorological measurement of ecosystem-scale fluxes predominantly employs eddy covariance or related methodologies. However, methods to directly quantify plant-mediated fluxes at the leaf scale remain limited.

Increasingly, plant-mediated transport (PMT) and plant-mediated exchange (PME) are recognised as important, and in some ecosystems even dominant pathways by which some soil-produced GHGs reach the atmosphere. These processes are influenced by both biotic and abiotic factors, and physiological characteristics of the plant, such as stomatal conductance, are thought to play a significant role. However, a limited body of literature constrains our understanding of this component of GHG flux, largely due to the lack of appropriate instrumentation and methodologies to quantify these fluxes. Clipping studies have been used to remove vegetation from plots and monitor net changes in flux, but this precludes investigation of interactions between plant physiology and the GHG flux.

Plant physiological responses are typically measured in an open flow through system to minimise perturbation of physiology. Portable photosynthesis systems measure CO₂ and H₂O concentrations before and after interacting with the leaf. The differences between these concentrations (ΔCO₂, ΔH₂O) permit calculation of physiological parameters including net CO₂ assimilation (A), intercellular CO₂ concentration (C_i), and stomatal conductance to water vapour (g_sw) while the chamber is continuously refreshed with stable air, allowing the maintenance of the leaf in a steady physiological state.

     However, the open flow-through nature of the photosynthesis system has traditionally made quantification of plant-mediated trace gas fluxes, such as CH₄ and N₂O, challenging. The surface area of plant material enclosed is typically small, and the relatively small changes in trace gas concentrations require a high degree of precision to resolve. Additional complexity arises from the large differences in H₂O concentration before and after interaction with the leaf due to transpiration. Most systems also show a sensitivity to changing CO₂ concentration, which is commonly utilised in plant physiology measurements.

Here we describe and characterise a system that integrates trace gas measurements with a commercial photosynthesis system (LI-COR LI-6800), managing water transients and integrating data from the various gas analysers, including real-time on-board flux calculations. Presented are two commercial OF-CEAS trace gas analysers, measuring CH₄ and N₂O (LI-COR LI-7810 and LI-7820 respectively). We examine the impact of averaging interval on measurement precision for a range of CO₂ mole fractions and assess the dependence of trace gas mole fraction to changing CO₂ mole fractions. We also present a sensitivity analysis for zero trace gas flux.

How to cite: Smillie, I., Bachle, S., Lynch, D., Vath, R., and Hupp, J.: Integrating leaf-level CH₄ and N₂O measurements with a field-portable photosynthesis system, EGU General Assembly 2026, Vienna, Austria, 3–8 May 2026, EGU26-5594, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu26-5594, 2026.