ERE5.2 | Faults and fractures in geoenergy applications: Monitoring, laboratory, field work and numerical modelling
Faults and fractures in geoenergy applications: Monitoring, laboratory, field work and numerical modelling
Co-organized by CL3.2/EMRP1/TS2
Convener: Roberto Emanuele RizzoECSECS | Co-conveners: Sarah WeihmannECSECS, Nathaniel Forbes Inskip, Catalina Sanchez-RoaECSECS
Orals
| Tue, 25 Apr, 08:30–12:30 (CEST)
 
Room 0.96/97
Posters on site
| Attendance Tue, 25 Apr, 14:00–15:45 (CEST)
 
Hall X4
Posters virtual
| Attendance Tue, 25 Apr, 14:00–15:45 (CEST)
 
vHall ERE
Orals |
Tue, 08:30
Tue, 14:00
Tue, 14:00
A predictive knowledge of fault and fracture zones and their transmissibility can have an enormous impact on the viability of geothermal, carbon capture, energy and waste storage projects. Understanding the role and the effects played by fault and fracture zones, physical properties of the system (e.g. frictional strength, cohesion and permeability) on the in-situ fluid behaviour can generate considerable advantages during exploration and management of these reservoirs and repositories. Generating realistic models of the subsurface requires detailed information on the deformation processes, structure and properties of fault and fracture zones. To create accurate and realistic models, we need to characterise the geometry and the distribution of faults and fractures, as well as the mechanical and petrophysical properties of the fractured rocks. The properties and the evolution of faulted/fractured rocks can be evaluated using a combination of laboratory data, well data and outcrop analogues which then constitute the backbone of discrete fracture network (DFN) modelling and robust numerical flow models.

We encourage researchers on applied or interdisciplinary energy studies associated with low carbon technologies (geothermal, repositories, hydrogeology, CCS) and modelling of fractured media (e.g. DFN) to come forward for this session. We look forward to interdisciplinary studies which use a combination of methods to analyse rock deformation processes and the role of faults and fractures in subsurface energy systems, including but not restricted to outcrop studies, laboratory measurements, analytical methods and numerical modelling. We are also interested in studies working across several different scales and that try to address the knowledge gap between laboratory scale measurements and reservoir scale processes.

Orals: Tue, 25 Apr | Room 0.96/97

Chairpersons: Nathaniel Forbes Inskip, Roberto Emanuele Rizzo, Sarah Weihmann
08:30–08:55
08:55–09:00
09:00–09:30
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EGU23-10311
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solicited
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On-site presentation
David Peacock, Bernd Leiss, and David Sanderson

Inferences have to be made about likely structures and their effects on fluid flow in a geothermal reservoir at the pre-drilling stage. This is the case for the potential geothermal reservoir in Variscan metasedimentary rocks that are expected to occur in the subsurface at Göttingen. Simple mechanical modelling, using reasonable ranges of values for rock properties, stresses and fluid pressures, is used here to predict the range of possible structures that are likely to exist in the sub-surface and that may be generated during thermal and hydraulic stimulation. Mohr diagrams are a useful way for predicting and illustrating how rocks can go from a stable stress state (i.e., no fracturing occurs) to an unstable stress state (i.e., fracturing occurs). This transition can occur if there are changes in: (1) the failure envelope; (2) the stresses; and/or (3) fluid pressure. Mohr diagrams are used to show under what fluid pressures and tectonic stresses different types and orientations of fractures are likely to be reactivated or generated. The approach enables the effects of parameters to be modelled individually, and for the types and orientations of fractures to be considered. This modelling is useful for helping geoscientists consider, model and predict the ranges of mechanical properties of rock, stresses, fluid pressures and the resultant fractures that are likely to occur in the sub-surface.

The Mesozoic rocks of the Somerset coast, UK, are used to illustrate how Mohr diagrams can help understand the history of fracturing. Such understanding is useful for predicting which fractures are likely to occur in the subsurface, which is important for predicting reservoir behaviour.

How to cite: Peacock, D., Leiss, B., and Sanderson, D.: Use of Mohr diagrams to predict fracturing in rock, EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-10311, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-10311, 2023.

09:30–09:32
09:32–09:42
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EGU23-10433
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On-site presentation
Hiroko Kitajima, Casey Ruplinger, and Cate Tilley

Pore fluid pressure in the geological formation at depth varies spatially and temporarily. An increase in pore fluid pressure leads to a reduction in effective normal stress and thus affects the rock strength and deformation mode. Extremely high pore fluid pressure induces very low normal stress conditions, where an extension or extension-shear hybrid fractures are formed. To better quantify the stress states and fluid pressure during fracture formation, it is crucial to document mechanical strength and the transition from tensile to shear fracture at low effective stress with elevated pore fluid pressure. However, all previous experimental studies were conducted under dry conditions. Here, we investigate the effects of pore fluid pressure on tensile and hybrid fractures in Berea sandstone by conducting triaxial extension deformation experiments under pore-fluid-pressure controlled conditions at effective maximum principal stress (σ1' = σ1 - Pp, where σ1 is total maximum principal stress and Pp is pore fluid pressure) ranging from 10 to 130 MPa. Fracture strength, inelastic strain, strain at failure, fracture angle to σ1', and the amount of comminution increase with σ1'. The transition of extension to shear fracture occurs at σ1' = ~ 30 MPa, based on the fracture angle and the degree of comminution. All the saturated or pore fluid pressure-controlled test specimens exhibit lower fracture strength than dry samples, and the difference is distinct when the minimum principal stress is tensile (i.e., σ3' < 0). This implies that pore fluid pressure more effectively assists the breakage of the bonds and opening of the microcracks in the extension fracture regime. A series of triaxial extension experiments at σ1' = 20 and 50 MPa with various combinations of σ1 and Pp indicate that the fracture angle to σ1' is independent of σ1 and Pp in the extension fracture regime at σ1' = 20 MPa, and that fracture angle increases with σ1 and Pp in the extension-shear hybrid fracture regime at σ1' = 50 MPa. This implies that the estimation of in-situ stress and pore fluid pressure from natural or human-induced deformation at low effective pressure (such as joints, veins, and drilling-induced tensile fractures) requires careful consideration of the mode of fractures formed.

How to cite: Kitajima, H., Ruplinger, C., and Tilley, C.: Experimental investigations on effects of pore fluid pressure on extension and extension-shear mixed-mode fracture in Berea sandstone, EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-10433, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-10433, 2023.

09:42–09:52
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EGU23-14982
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On-site presentation
Jackie E. Kendrick, Julian Mouli-Castillo, Anthony Lamur, Andrew Fraser-Harris, Alexander Lightbody, Mike Chandler, Katriona Edlmann, Christopher McDermott, and Zoe Shipton

Subsurface engineering, such as geothermal energy extraction, requires knowledge of the rupture of geomaterials. Of particular importance is the time- and rate-dependence of material strength, which impacts fracture architecture and thus hydraulic conductivity and system permeability. Cyclic soft stimulation (CSS) techniques have been developed to maximise the efficiency of resource extraction whilst minimising large amplitude, fluid-injection induced seismicity. Here, we explore the benefits of cyclic stimulation experimentally, utilising novel “pulsed pumping” hydraulic fracture tests in which fluid pressure is cycled within the central borehole of a suite of 20x20cm cylinders of dense granite. The response is monitored at high-resolution by fibre-optic circumferential strain measurements, fluid pressure data and acoustic emission recording. Using cyclic high-low pressure square waves, we found that breakdown pressure was reduced by up to 15% compared to the monotonic case in which pressure was increased by applying a constant flow rate. Whilst peak pressure had the primary control on the number of cycles to failure, increasing the minimum pressure in the borehole (thus increasing mean pressure) further reduced breakdown pressure, suggesting that even small pressure fluctuations during hydraulic stimulation may reduce the largest stress drops, and hence the magnitude of induced seismic events. Strain measurements detected accelerating precursory deformation a few cycles prior to failure, hinting at the opportunity for responsive stimulation practices where activity can be monitored in real-time. These novel large-scale, high-resolution experiments were complemented by indirect tensile measurements at a range of strain rates, and by cyclic fatigue Brazilian disc testing at a range of peak loads and cycle amplitudes. These results further highlight the increasing contribution of time-dependent deformation during slower and cyclic loading, resulting in lower peak loads and reducing large magnitude fracturing events. The generated S-N curves demonstrate that weakening by cyclic hydraulic pressurisation mimics relationships defined by conventional fatigue testing of geomaterials. Such experimental constraints will be of great benefit to the development of cyclic stimulation practices for subsurface engineering.

How to cite: Kendrick, J. E., Mouli-Castillo, J., Lamur, A., Fraser-Harris, A., Lightbody, A., Chandler, M., Edlmann, K., McDermott, C., and Shipton, Z.: Constraining the impact of cyclic hydraulic stimulation on granites, EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-14982, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-14982, 2023.

09:52–10:02
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EGU23-12483
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ECS
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On-site presentation
Roberta Ruggieri, Giacomo Pozzi, and Cristiano Collettini

During fault evolution different rock types are fractured and sheared within the fault core, producing fault gouges with heterogeneous mineralogical composition. Mineral composition exerts a primary control on fault frictional properties and hence on fault slip behaviour. Understanding the conditions that lead to seismic or aseismic fault slip is of great interest to earthquake hazard assessment both for natural and induced seismicity. Although the effect of single mineral phases is probably the most documented factor in laboratory tests, no clear link has been established to understand how systematic variation of different mineral phases in gouge mixtures influences the macroscopic frictional behaviour.

Here we present an experimental study designed to probe the control of mineral composition on fault friction and stability responses. We selected three representative mineral phases, commonly found in fault zones, that are known to have severely different frictional properties: muscovite (phyllosilicate), quartz (granular silicate) and calcite (granular carbonate). Thirty double direct shear experiments were performed using a biaxial rock deformation apparatus (BRAVA) on powders (with grain sizes < 125 µm) of pure minerals and their mixtures at normal stress of 50 and 100 MPa, at room temperature and water saturation conditions. After an initial sliding of 10 mm at 10 µm/s to develop a steady state shear fabric, slide‐hold‐slide sequences (30-1000 s) and velocity steps (0.3-300 µm/s) were employed to evaluate static healing and frictional stability, respectively.

Our experimental data indicate that the mineralogical composition of fault gouges significantly affects the frictional strength, healing, and stability with a non-trivial pattern. Increasing phyllosilicate (muscovite) content results in a decrease of the frictional strength, from 0.62 for pure calcite and 0.56 for pure quartz down to 0.33 for pure muscovite powders. This effect is more marked in calcite-rich mixtures rather than quartz-rich ones, possibly due to favourable conditions for fluid-assisted pressure-solution at grain contacts. Calcite-muscovite interaction also favours a reduction of frictional healing and a more marked velocity-strengthening behaviour (promoting stable sliding and fault creep) in comparison to quartz-muscovite mixtures.

How to cite: Ruggieri, R., Pozzi, G., and Collettini, C.: Mineralogical control on fault friction and stability: a systematic study on quartz, calcite and muscovite ternary mixtures., EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-12483, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-12483, 2023.

10:02–10:12
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EGU23-5623
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ECS
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On-site presentation
Lucille Carbillet, Michael Heap, and Patrick Baud

Measurements of permeability at high-pressure and high-temperature are critical to model and understand the behaviour and evolution of geothermal systems. To perform such measurements and provide constraints on the permeability of crustal rocks, we designed and tested a new apparatus.

Our high-pressure, high-temperature permeameter consists of three independent parts: the permeant gas circuit, the confining fluid circuit, and the heating element. For each measurement, a cylindrical sample is placed between the up- and downstream platens, into an annular Viton jacket which is secured within the pressure vessel. A confining pressure can be applied to the sample by filling the void space between the vessel and jacket through the inlet with kerosene. The confining pressure can be increased up to 50 MPa using a high-pressure hand pump. The temperature of the system can then be increased from room-temperature to up to 150 °C using a heating mantle wrapped around the pressure vessel and connected to a control box. After the confining pressure and temperature have been applied to the system, the permeability measurement is performed by flowing nitrogen (the permeant gas) through the sample while monitoring the pressure differential between the upstream pressure transducer and atmospheric pressure downstream of the sample at different volumetric flow rates (the steady-state method), measured using the downstream flowmeter.

Using this new experimental apparatus, the permeability of Lanhélin granite (from France) samples were measured. Cylindrical samples were prepared and thermally stressed (heated to 700 °C) to ensure that their permeabilities lie in the range that can be measured in our set-up (> 10-18 m2). Permeability measurements were then performed under confining pressures of 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, and 50 MPa at room temperature, 50, and 100 °C. Our results provide the evolution of the permeability of microfractured granite in various pressure and temperature conditions, which will serve to inform numerical modelling designed to explore the influence of in-situ conditions on fluid flow within a fractured geothermal reservoir.

How to cite: Carbillet, L., Heap, M., and Baud, P.: The evolution of permeability with pressure and temperature in microfractured granite, EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-5623, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-5623, 2023.

Coffee break
Chairpersons: Roberto Emanuele Rizzo, Sarah Weihmann, Nathaniel Forbes Inskip
10:45–10:47
10:47–10:57
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EGU23-7330
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ECS
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Highlight
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On-site presentation
Ashley Stanton-Yonge, Thomas Mitchell, Philip Meredith, Sveinborg Gunnarsdóttir, Sandra Ósk Snæbjörnsdóttir, and Vala Hjorleifsdottir

The Hengill region is one of the largest areas of high geothermal gradient and subsurface heat flow in Iceland, and hosts two of its largest geothermal power plants: Hellisheiði and Nesjavellir, which have a combined capacity of 423 MWe and 560 MWth. The Hengill region is located in a unique tectonic setting, characterized by the convergence of three plate boundary segments: the oblique-spreading Reykjanes Peninsula (RP), the orthogonal-spreading rift of the Western Volcanic Zone (WVZ) and the transform, South Iceland Seismic Zone (SISZ). Unlike most tectonic triple junctions, which occur on the ocean floor, the Hengill Triple Junction (HTJ) is exposed above sea level, thus providing a unique opportunity to study the interplay between three plate boundary segments and the local deformation processes occurring at their convergence site. Additionally, the injection of fluids due to on-going geothermal operations enhances the natural tendency of the region for seismic activity, and results in a significant level of induced seismic hazard. Because slip on pre-existing faults is triggered when the applied shear stress surpasses the frictional strength of the fault, regions that are naturally subjected to higher shear stresses are more prone to fault re-activation due to fluid re-injection. Therefore, a spatial variation in tectonic stresses may result in varying induced seismicity potential within a region.

The local interplay of the three converging tectonic regimes, and their effect on the stress fields within the triple junction region, has been examined through a combination of regional structural mapping and a numerical model of the plate boundary interactions using the Boundary Element Method (BEM). Large scale structural mapping and analytical models of oblique rifting were used to estimate the degree of rift obliquity for individual fissure swarms. Our results reveal that the transition from the highly oblique rift system of the RP towards the spreading-orthogonal rift of the WVZ is smooth, and manifests as a rotation of the trend of fissures and eruptive ridges, and the strike of normal faults formed in response to the local stress field developed in the HTJ. These results were then correlated with those from the BEM model, which allows us to predict the orientation, relative magnitude, and distribution of stresses within the study area. Finally, the shear stress distribution determined from the BEM model was plotted against the location of both natural and induced seismic events detected in the region over a time span of 26 months, by the COSEISMIQ project (Grigoli et al., 2022). Our results show that seismic events cluster in either at the triple junction or SW of it, within the highly stressed regions of the RP. Furthermore, the seismicity transitions from scattered to non-existent towards the north of the region, where shear stresses also diffuse. The good correlation between the high shear stress regions predicted by the model and distribution of seismicity suggests that this approach may provide a valuable and cost-effective tool for seismic hazard prediction within regions with complex tectonic settings.

 

How to cite: Stanton-Yonge, A., Mitchell, T., Meredith, P., Gunnarsdóttir, S., Ósk Snæbjörnsdóttir, S., and Hjorleifsdottir, V.: Structural patterns and states of stress at the Hengill Triple Junction, SW Iceland: implications for fluid-injection induced seismic hazard, EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-7330, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-7330, 2023.

10:57–11:07
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EGU23-9317
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ECS
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Virtual presentation
Onyedika Anthony Igbokwe, Jithender Timothy, Ashwani Kumar, Xiao Yan, Mathias Mueller, Alessandro Verdecchia, Günther Meschke, and Adrian Immenhauser

Changes in stress regimes impact the geometry of fracture networks and affect the porosity and permeability of carbonate reservoirs. This is, predominantly, because of the complexity of the deformation phases, the poor understanding of the mechanical and diagenetic mechanisms that affect apertures, and the difficulty in precisely characterizing aperture distributions in the subsurface. Utilizing outcrop data analysis and displacement-based linear elastic finite element modelling, we study the effect of stress regime change on fracture network permeability. The model is based on fracture networks, specifically fracture sub-structures.

The Latemar, which is primarily affected by subsidence deformation and Alpine compression, is used as an outcrop analogue for isolated (Mesozoic) carbonate formations with fracture-dominated permeability. We apply a novel strategy involving two compressive boundary loading conditions constrained by the study area's NW-SE and N-S stress directions. Stress-dependent heterogeneous apertures and effective permeability were computed by: (i) using the local stress state within the fracture sub-structure and (ii) running a single-phase flow analysis considering the fracture apertures in each fracture sub-structure.

Our results show that the impact of the modelled far-field stresses at: (i) subsidence deformation (first stage loading) from the NW-SE, and (ii) Alpine deformation (second stage loading) from the N-S, increased the overall fracture aperture and permeability. In each case, increasing permeability is associated with open fractures parallel to the orientation of the loading stages and with fracture densities. The anisotropy of permeability is affected by shear dilation and is increased by the density and connectedness of the fracture network. The two far-field stresses simultaneously acting within the selected fracture sub-structure at a different magnitude and orientation do not necessarily cancel out each other in the mechanical deformation modelling. These stresses effect the overall aperture and permeability distributions. These effects, which may be ignored in simpler stress-dependent permeability, can result in significant inaccuracies in permeability estimation, especially in the subsurface carbonate reservoirs.

How to cite: Igbokwe, O. A., Timothy, J., Kumar, A., Yan, X., Mueller, M., Verdecchia, A., Meschke, G., and Immenhauser, A.: Effect of stress regime change on fractured carbonate’s permeability: A case of Latemar carbonate buildup (The Dolomites, Northern Italy) , EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-9317, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-9317, 2023.

11:07–11:17
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EGU23-5675
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ECS
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On-site presentation
Luigi Riccardo Berio, Fabrizio Balsamo, Mattia Pizzati, Fabrizio Storti, Manuel Curzi, and Giulio Viola

The study of fault damage zones is key to the understanding of fault-related fluid flow in the upper crust with many applications, including groundwater and hydrocarbon exploration, and underground storage of CO2 and H. Many studies reveal that a relationship exists between fault damage zone width and net fault displacement. Despite this positive relationship, several factors such as the tectonic setting, the depth of deformation, the deformation mechanisms, and the evolving mechanical properties of fault rocks affect damage zone characteristics (e.g., width, asymmetry, fracture attitude, deformation intensity). Furthermore, recent studies show that the overall along-strike fault geometry may play a pivotal role in controlling damage zone characteristics. In particular, areas such as tip regions, linkage sectors, relay ramps and step-overs can be characterised by fault damage zone parameters markedly different from sectors away from these structural complexities. In this contribution, we present new structural data of fault damage zone parameters acquired along the 8 km long extensional Kornos-Aghios Ioannis Fault (KAIF) on Lemnos Island, North Aegean Sea, Greece. The KAIF deforms lower Miocene effusive and hypabyssal magmatic rocks and middle Eocene to lower Miocene turbidites. Deformed rock volumes along the KAIF are locally strongly altered by hydrothermal fluids (e.g., hydrothermal silicification). We provide a detailed characterization of the KAIF in terms of 2D fault geometry (mapped at 1:1000 scale) and kinematics and we present a characterization of fault damage zone parameters, including frequency and attitude of subsidiary fault-related fractures, in different fault sectors. The acquired data allowed us to define the boundaries of fault damage zones in the different sectors and to discuss the differences in terms of fracture attributes in linking- and tip-damage zones compared to damage zones away from these structural complexities. Our results show that fault damage zones in linkage and tip sectors are wider and that fault-related fractures are more clustered around several subsidiary faults with centimetre- to metre-offsets. Also, secondary fractures in linkage and tip sectors are less systematically oriented, thus increasing fracture network connectivity and, consequently, facilitating fluid mobility in structurally complex fault sectors.

How to cite: Berio, L. R., Balsamo, F., Pizzati, M., Storti, F., Curzi, M., and Viola, G.: Along-strike fault geometry controls damage zone parameters: the case of the Kornos-Aghios Ioannis Extensional Fault (Lemnos Island, NE Greece), EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-5675, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-5675, 2023.

11:17–11:27
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EGU23-13820
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ECS
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On-site presentation
Nadine Haaf, Luis Guarracino, Damien Jougnot, and Eva Schill

A number of six in situ hydraulic fracturing experiments were carried out at the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory (Sweden) in 2017 in a depth of 410 m. Here we present electric self-potential monitoring during the conventional and the step-wise cyclic injection experiments HF2 and HF3. Electric self-potential data were acquired through a two-sensor array, each including nine measuring probes and one base probe, that were installed at the 410 m and 280 m levels. The experimental borehole F1 is drilled in the direction of Shmin, perpendicular to the expected fracture plane. The self-potential sensors are installed sub-parallel to Shmin at level 410 at a distance of 50-75 m to the borehole F1 and sub-perpendicular to Shmin at level 280 m at a distance of 150-200 m to F1. The self-potential data were measured with a sampling rate of 1 Hz. Here, we propose a 1-D modelling of the streaming potential that approximates the measured self-potential data. These streaming potential gradients ∆V are estimated from the simulated pressure signals and the coupling coefficient.

How to cite: Haaf, N., Guarracino, L., Jougnot, D., and Schill, E.: Electric self-potential monitoring of hydraulic fracturing experiments in the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory, Sweden., EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-13820, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-13820, 2023.

11:27–11:29
11:29–11:39
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EGU23-9661
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On-site presentation
Andrea Bistacchi, Sylvain Mayolle, Stefano Casiraghi, Erica De Paolo, Mattia Martinelli, Federico Agliardi, and Fabio La Valle

The characterization and modelling of fractured reservoirs of geofluids are becoming increasingly important in the ongoing energy transition and climate crisis. Fractured reservoirs are fundamental for critical applications such as CO2 sequestration, H2 and natural gas storage, exploitation of geothermal fluids and hydrothermal ore deposits, and management and safeguard of groundwater resources (deep aquifers are considered more resilient in drought scenarios). In addition, the characterization of fracture networks is relevant in earthquake mechanics, slope stability and engineering geology.

Characterization of natural fracture systems and fracture networks is often based on characterization of outcrop analogues, with measurement of large structural datasets with a combination of field and remote sensing techniques (e.g. Digital Outcrop Models - DOMs), leading to statistical and topological analysis. Numerous studies provide significant amounts of data from a broad variety of methodologies and protocols used in the field. These methodologies aim at characterizing fracture systems by a large number of parameters. Individual “fracture” sets are characterized by genetic features (e.g. joint vs. stylolite), relative chronology, spatial distribution (regular, random, clustered...), density and intensity (e.g. P20 and P21), and by statistical distributions of spacing, orientation, length, height, and aperture (the latter being a dynamical property that varies with fluid pressure and confining stress). Fracture networks composed by several sets are also characterized by topology and connectivity (characterized for instance in terms of fracture terminations or with graphs).

Here we propose a thorough review, supported by rich case studies, of quantitative methods for fracture network characterization and analysis on DOMs. This review aims at determining the most relevant and efficient methods for field and remote-sensing measurement, and best-practice statistical analysis techniques, in order to accurately characterize outcrop analogues that can be used to model fractured reservoirs.

How to cite: Bistacchi, A., Mayolle, S., Casiraghi, S., De Paolo, E., Martinelli, M., Agliardi, F., and La Valle, F.: Quantitative structural analysis of fracture networks in outcrop analogues of fractured reservoirs: a review of measurement methodologies and statistical techniques, EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-9661, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-9661, 2023.

11:39–11:49
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EGU23-6756
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ECS
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On-site presentation
Ruaridh Smith, Rahul Prabhakaran, and Daniel Koehn

Fluid flow within low permeable reservoirs such as carbonates is primarily controlled by faults, fractures and other structural networks which can be defined through properties such as intensity, connectivity and aperture. These properties can vary not only among individual fractures but also between scales which can influence uncertainties within permeability calculations and fluid flow simulations. Therefore, understanding the interactions and variations within these networks is fundamental to deriving properties such as permeability and characterising fluid flow through naturally fractured reservoirs.

Determining fracture network properties of reservoirs can be undertaken using several methods across different scales from both surface and subsurface sources. However, where subsurface data is limited (e.g., within the geothermal reservoirs of Northern Bavaria), outcrop analogues become vital for obtaining the important information required for characterising fracture networks. Outcrops such as quarry sections can be imaged and scanned using both 2D and 3D photogrammetry techniques, from which fault and fracture networks can be detected and analysed. Previous work has presented a method to upscale fracture networks to 2D permeability tensors from outcrop sections through independently assigning properties to individual fractures within the networks. However, upscaling the networks to larger scales can lead to uncertainties due to variations within the modelled fracture networks. It its therefore important to understand the how the permeability tensor varies between scales and dimensions to reduce upscaling uncertainties.

Using examples from multiple outcrops within the Franconian Basin, Germany, we present an improved workflow to derive the tensors between dimensions and an investigation of the relationships among fracture networks at different scales. This will show the effect on permeability within geothermal reservoirs in the region and how to reduce the uncertainty in upscaling outcrops to subsurface reservoir scale.

How to cite: Smith, R., Prabhakaran, R., and Koehn, D.: Investigating scale variations in outcrop derived permeability tensors and the effect on geothermal fluid in upscaling naturally fractured reservoirs, EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-6756, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-6756, 2023.

11:49–11:59
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EGU23-4952
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ECS
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Virtual presentation
Nicolás Barbosa, Tobias Müller, Marco Favino, and Klaus Holliger

Characterizing fluid transport and pore pressure diffusion is key for understanding and monitoring many natural (e.g., seismically active zones and volcanic systems) and engineered environments (e.g., enhanced geothermal reservoirs and CO2 underground storage). Borehole hydraulic testing allows to infer relevant properties of the probed sub-surface volume, such as, for example, its transmissivity and diffusivity, for assessing the governing flow regime as well as for detecting the presence of hydraulic boundaries. Periodic hydraulic tests (PHT) achieve these objectives using a time-harmonic fluid injection procedure while measuring the fluid pressure response in monitoring boreholes. The relevant information on the pressure diffusion process occurring in the probed formation is retrieved from the phase shifts and amplitude ratios between the injected flow rate and the interval pressure. In general, the interpretation of PHT data relies on the assumption that the pressure diffusion process is uncoupled from the solid deformation of the probed rock volume. We present a poroelastic numerical approach to investigate the role played by hydromechanical coupling (HMC) effects during PHT and to assess whether and to what extent additional mechanical information can be extracted from these tests. We focus on (i) the influence of the borehole wall deformation on the wellbore storage coefficient Sw, which quantifies the difference between the injected flow rates and those actually entering the porous formation; and on (ii) the HMC effects associated with the presence of fractures in the formation. Following the commonly taken approach, we also interpret the synthetic data from the numerical poroelastic approach using the uncoupled diffusion solution. For different rock physical properties, we demonstrate that, in homogeneous formations, the uncoupled diffusion solution reproduces the poroelastic results. In this scenario, neglecting the effect of the deformation of the borehole wall on Sw upon injection can lead to an underestimation of both the transmissivity and diffusivity, which becomes worse for shorter oscillation periods. We also show that the effective values of Sw depend on the shear modulus of the formation and do not change with the oscillatory period. Based on this evidence, we present a methodology to obtain the effective Sw along with the hydraulic properties using observations at various oscillatory periods. Next, we consider formations containing hydraulically open and compliant fractures intersecting the borehole perpendicularly. Here, a single uncoupled diffusion model is not able to fully describe the poroelastic response of the medium at different periods. Furthermore, the presence of fractures significantly affects the effective value of Sw: it increases with respect to the one associated with the intact homogeneous rock, and the HMC effects associated with the compressibility contrast in the formation result in a period dependence of Sw. The characteristic period of the latter is primarily related to the diffusivity and size of the fractures. This result is particularly relevant for the planning and interpretation of monitoring experiments, in which the mechanical properties of the formation are expected to evolve, such as, for example, hydraulic stimulation procedures, seismic and/or volcanic regions, and injection of wastewater and CO2 for subsurface storage.

How to cite: Barbosa, N., Müller, T., Favino, M., and Holliger, K.: Poroelastic modeling of borehole-based periodic hydraulic tests in non-fractured and fractured porous rocks, EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-4952, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-4952, 2023.

11:59–12:09
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EGU23-17201
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Virtual presentation
Guijie Sang, Rebecca Lunn, Grainne El Mountassir, and James Minto

Subsurface storage of CO2 and retrievable green energy (i.e. compressed air and hydrogen) in depleted gas reservoirs, deep saline aquifers and salt caverns, are considered as key transitions within the energy sector to enable many countries to meet their net zero carbon emissions targets. One of the main challenges in underground storage is the presence of potential leakage pathways (such as caprock fractures/faults) which pose a threat to economic feasibility and to the environment. Seeking an efficient technique to remediate leakage pathways is crucial to guarantee sealing efficacy. Microbially induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) is regarded as a promising bio-grouting technique for leakage remediation due to its advantages such as the low water-like viscosity and micron-size microbes, which enables permeation far from the injection point and excellent penetration into fine aperture fractures.

MICP utilizes ureolytic bacteria, commonly Sporosarcina pasteurii (S. pasteurii) to produce highly active urease enzyme, which can catalyze urea hydrolysis and result in the production of carbonate ions. Carbonate precipitation occurs if a calcium source is supplied, which can effectively remediate leakage by filling void space and improve strength by bonding solid grains.

We propose a micro-continuum model which accounts for the coupled hydro-bio-chemical MICP processes in fractured porous rock. In this micro-continuum model, the flow is controlled by the Darcy-Brinkman-Stokes equation over a number of control volumes (i.e. voxels based on X-ray CT scan). The kinetic parameters of urea hydrolysis and calcium carbonate precipitation are calibrated based on batch experiments. The bacteria deposition parameters, which feature the bacteria deposition in fractured rock, are calibrated based on experimentally measured bacteria breakthrough curves in a 1-dimensional column filled with fracture gouge materials. The proposed micro-continuum model can well represent the decreases in porosity and permeability of an artificially-cut anhydrite fracture filled with anhydrite gouges under MICP treatment cycles. Our modelling results also suggest that when the CaCl2 concentration is equal to or higher than the urea concentration in the injected cementing solution, the rate of microbially induced carbonate precipitation is predominantly limited by the kinetics of urea hydrolysis rather than the kinetics of calcium carbonate precipitation. The proposed micro-continuum model serves as a useful tool for evaluating MICP treatment strategies and may be upscaled to predict and optimise field-scale leakage remediation.

How to cite: Sang, G., Lunn, R., El Mountassir, G., and Minto, J.: Micro-Continuum Modelling of Coupled Hydro-Bio-Chemical MICP Processes in Fractured Rock, EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-17201, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-17201, 2023.

12:09–12:26
12:26–12:30

Posters on site: Tue, 25 Apr, 14:00–15:45 | Hall X4

Chairpersons: Sarah Weihmann, Nathaniel Forbes Inskip, Roberto Emanuele Rizzo
X4.187
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EGU23-1696
Jeong-Gi Um and Junbong Bae

A workflow is presented to estimate the size of a representative elementary volume and 3-D hydraulic conductivity tensor based on the discrete fracture network (DFN) fluid flow analysis through the case study performed for a granitic rock mass near the low and intermediate level radioactive waste disposal site in southeastern Korea. Intensity and size of joints were calibrated using the first invariant of fracture tensor for the 2-D DFN of the study area. Effective hydraulic apertures were obtained by analyzing the results of field packer tests. The representative elementary volume of the 2-D DFN was determined to be 20m square by investigating the variations in the directional hydraulic conductivity for blocks of different sizes. The directional hydraulic conductivities calculated from the 2-D DFN exhibited strong anisotropy related to hydraulic behaviors of the study area. The 3-D hydraulic conductivity tensor for the fractured rock mass of the study area was estimated from the directional block conductivities of the 2-D DFN blocks generated for various directions in 3-D. The orientations of the principal components of the 3-D hydraulic conductivity tensor were found to be identical to those of the delineated joint sets in the study area.

How to cite: Um, J.-G. and Bae, J.: Estimation of 3-D hydraulic conductivity tensor for a granitic rock mass near the low and intermediate level radioactive waste disposal site in Korea, EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-1696, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-1696, 2023.

X4.188
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EGU23-8221
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ECS
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Kai Bröker, Xiaodong Ma, Deborah Stadler, Nima Gholizadeh Doonechaly, Marian Hertrich, and Domenico Giardini and the Bedretto Team

Hydraulic shearing of natural fractures or fault zones is a key mechanism for enhancing permeability in engineered geothermal systems (EGS) in order to extract geothermal energy from crystalline basement rocks. Shear reactivation is achieved by hydraulic stimulation in an injection borehole, involving a complex hydro-seismo-mechanical response of fractured crystalline rock. A major challenge is to predict which fractures are reactivated at which reactivation pressures, in order to efficiently design the injection protocols and create a large fracture network for sufficient fluid circulation and heat exchange.

The Bedretto Underground Laboratory for Geosciences and Geoenergies (BedrettoLab) in Switzerland serves as an in situ test-bed where meso-scale hydraulic stimulation experiments are conducted to better bridge the knowledge gap between laboratory scale experiments and complex reservoir scale processes (Ma et al. 2022). The BedrettoLab is located in a 100 m long enlarged section of the Bedretto tunnel (Ticino, Switzerland), with an overburden of more than 1000 m of granite. Several characterization, monitoring, and two stimulation boreholes were drilled. One of the stimulation boreholes (referred to as ST1) is 400 m long, 45°-dipping, and was equipped with a multi-packer system that partitions the borehole into 15 intervals. Before conducting two multi-stage hydraulic stimulation phases in borehole ST1, the rock volume was characterized with various geophysical logging tools, hydraulic tests, and mini-frac tests for stress measurements (Bröker and Ma 2022, Ma et al. 2022).

Along the stimulation borehole, we mapped multiple clusters of sub-parallel pre-existing open fractures and fault zones that are preferentially oriented for reactivation in the estimated stress field. In this work, we compare our preceding probabilistic slip tendency and reactivation pressure estimates with the results from hydraulic stimulation experiments. The interval pressure and flowrate data from the stimulations reveal a reactivation of the natural fractures associated with an increase in injectivity. A comparison of the expected stress field around the stimulation interval with the observed reactivation pressure indicates that the fractures were likely reactivated by hydraulic shearing. The observed reactivation pressures are in the range of the preceding estimates, but a precise estimation is challenging due to the large number of input parameters, i.e. stress magnitudes and orientation, fracture orientation, pore pressure, coefficient of friction, and their uncertainties.

References:

Bröker, K., & Ma, X. (2022). Estimating the Least Principal Stress in a Granitic Rock Mass: Systematic Mini-Frac Tests and Elaborated Pressure Transient Analysis. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-021-02743-1

Ma, X., Hertrich, M., Amann, F., Bröker, K., Gholizadeh Doonechaly, N., Gischig, V., Hochreutener, R., Kästli, P., Krietsch, H., Marti, M., Nägeli, B., Nejati, M., Obermann, A., Plenkers, K., Rinaldi, A. P., Shakas, A., Villiger, L., Wenning, Q., Zappone, A., … Giardini, D. (2022). Multi-disciplinary characterizations of the BedrettoLab -- a new underground geoscience research facility. Solid Earth, 13(2), 301–322. https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-301-2022

How to cite: Bröker, K., Ma, X., Stadler, D., Doonechaly, N. G., Hertrich, M., and Giardini, D. and the Bedretto Team: Slip tendency and reactivation pressure prediction of natural fractures at the Bedretto Underground Laboratory, Switzerland, EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-8221, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-8221, 2023.

X4.189
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EGU23-8016
Jörn Bartels, Peter Schätzl, and Thomas Baumann

Hydrochemical stimulation by acidification of geothermal wells is a standard procedure to remove drilling mud and to improve hydraulic contact between borehole and reservoir. Several successive stimulations using hydrochloric acid were monitored by both online measurement and conventional analysis. The results show recovery curves with distinct two-step exponential temporal decrease of the chloride concentration. The initial decrease is fast, representing water and acid flow along pathways which are very well connected to the borehole. After the fluid from these flow paths has been recovered, the concentration decreases at a lower rate. This can be attributed to water flowing in less well connected flow paths. With additional stimulations the chloride concentration curve approaches a mono-exponential decrease. This indicates that the flow paths within the reach of the stimulation get more homogeneous.

A numerical model of flow and solute transport in the borehole and the surrounding geothermal reservoir was developed in order to simulate the observed chloride-recovery behaviour in the course of a number of successive hydrochemical stimulations. The finite-element model was adapted to match the observed hydraulic and hydrochemical data range.

Simulation hereby allows to separate time-dependent single contributions from the different flow paths to the total recovery concentration. Based on this information, indications of structural change due to the successive acidification steps can be derived from the chloride-recovery curves of each step. Furthermore, for typical settings the minimum time and volume of solution can be estimated which is required to achieve a significant structural signal

The derived structural information can be useful to predict the long-term behaviour of a geothermal injection well which during operation is exposed to a mild but constant chemical stimulation by the injected cold and, with respect to chloride in the rock matrix, undersaturated water. 

How to cite: Bartels, J., Schätzl, P., and Baumann, T.: Hydrochemical Stimulation in Fractured Carbonate Rocks - Monitoring and Simulation, EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-8016, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-8016, 2023.

X4.190
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EGU23-9673
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ECS
Giovanni Freda, Silvia Mittempergher, Fabrizio Balsamo, Raffaele Di Cuia, and Angelo Ricciato

Faults and fractures have a crucial role in controlling the permeability in carbonate reservoirs, as they can act as a conduit or barrier for fluid flow. Reservoir-scale outcrop analogue studies provide a useful tool to investigate their spatial distribution and connectivity and to establish the relationships between small-scale structures with larger structures that can be identified in the subsurface.

In this contribution, we describe the preliminary results of a structural study carried out in the Matera's High, South Italy, as an analogue for porous carbonate structures that could be used as CO2 storage fields. Matera High is located on the western side of the Murge region, at the boundary between the Apulian foreland and the foredeep of the southern Apennines thrust belt. It consists of an asymmetrical horst structure involving the Cretaceous carbonates of the Apulian platform (Calcare di Altamura). The Calcare di Altamura is unconformably overlain by Plio-Pleistocene shallow-marine coarse-grained carbonates (Calcarenite di Gravina). The Calcare di Altamura is moderately tilted and is characterised by NW-SE striking normal faults with a throw variable from centimetres to tens of meters. The Cretaceous sequence is also characterised by widespread joints, whose intensity increases approaching faults. The Plio-Pleistocene carbonate succession has very few faults. It is dominated by deformation bands organized into 3 main sets dipping at high angles and striking N-S, NW-SE, and NE-SW. This geological setting allows us to conduct a detailed structural study on an area of about 80 km2, investigating how deformation structures affect the secondary porosity in tight limestone and porous calcarenites. The study was conducted at multiple scales in the field and laboratory and includes (1) geological mapping and structural measurements of faults, fractures and deformation bands; (2) use of linear scan-lines to characterise the deformation bands density across faults; (3) use of photogrammetric techniques to obtain Virtual Outcrop Models (VOMs); (4) development of 3D model based on statistical and topological analysis obtained from scan lines and scan areas in the field and VOMs, (5) petrophysical logging (uniaxial strength, in situ permeability, gamma ray) to highlight the factors that control the formation of the deformation bands, (6) image analysis of blue-resin impregnated thin section and optical cathodoluminescence images, and (7) He-density and Hg-intrusion porosimetry to quantify host rock and deformation bands porosity and pore size distribution.

The preliminary results suggest that the combination of fieldwork, VOMs and laboratory measurements allow the characterization of the deformation bands with more confidence to obtain conceptual and quantitative models about its effects on the fluid flow which can be used for reservoirs characterization for CO2 sequestration.

How to cite: Freda, G., Mittempergher, S., Balsamo, F., Di Cuia, R., and Ricciato, A.: Deformation bands characterization in porous carbonates: a case study from the Matera High (Southern Italy), EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-9673, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-9673, 2023.

X4.191
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EGU23-15424
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ECS
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Highlight
Vladimir Shipilin and Manfred Dölling

The geothermal potential in the deep subsurface of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW) has been scarcely explored. Due to the increasing demand for zero-carbon heating applications, there has been a renewed phase of seismic exploration in the region to investigate potential geothermal aquifers. The prime exploration target is the Lower Carboniferous Ruhr Basin and the Devonian substratum of the Variscan foreland, as they host deep carbonate aquifers. Interpretation of the recently-acquired 70-km-long 2D seismic profiles, together with the 2D legacy seismic data in the northern part of the Ruhr basin, the Münsterland region, reveals two carbonate units; the Dinantian platform facies and the Givetian massive facies. These are located at depths that range from c. 4500 m to 6000 m. Considering their great burial depth, the permeability of the carbonate rocks is considered to be primarily facilitated by fault zones with dense fracture swarms. Therefore, understanding the complex deformation history of this fossil foreland basin is crucial to evaluate its geothermal potential. We here reveal the timing and geometric evolution of the fault zones. Using a multiattribute seismic analysis, we delineate three major types of faults; (1) SW–NE-⁠trending, syn-fold thrusts, (2) WNW–ESE-striking normal faults, and (3) E–W and N–S strike-slip faults. Interestingly, we do not observe in the available data flexure-induced faults that are typical for foreland basins and would be expected to strike parallel to the SW–NE-oriented Variscan Orogen. To constrain the relative timing of fault activity, we mapped seven well-constrained and age-calibrated stratigraphic horizons within the Carboniferous molasse sequence and the Cretaceous cover. The preliminary results confirm the observations of previous researchers that the thrust faults formed after the deposition of the Late Carboniferous strata, as evidenced by their concordant folding. Thrusts are crosscut by the normal faults, suggesting that the latter formed at a subsequent stage. Most of the strike-slip faults cut through the Carboniferous–Cretaceous unconformity, with some culminating in the Cretaceous cover as positive flower structures. Notably, one flower structure is co-linear with a thrust fault in the Carboniferous, suggesting that there is some degree of kinematic linkage between the two structural levels. Possibly, some of the optimally-oriented thrusts were reactivated and grew upward as strike-slip faults during Late Cretaceous transpression. Such multiphase evolution of fault zones may enhance permeability structure, since each reactivation event potentially contributes to the widening of the deformation zones, thereby increasing the density of interconnected fractures. In this study, we demonstrate how the integration of new seismic data provides valuable insights into the structural evolution of the Ruhr Basin and its geothermal potential. A 3D seismic acquisition campaign is planned in the investigated region. Using its results, we intend to conduct a high-resolution fault throw analysis to further constrain the kinematic development of the deformation structures.

How to cite: Shipilin, V. and Dölling, M.: Structural evolution in the northern Ruhr basin: A case study of urban geothermal exploration in the Münsterland Region, EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-15424, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-15424, 2023.

X4.192
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EGU23-10797
Shradharghya Shankar Adhikary and Abhijit Chaudhuri

 Deep geothermal reservoirs are often naturally or hydraulically fractured media which consist of a rock matrix and a network of randomly oriented discrete fractures of different sizes. In the present study, a three-dimensional model of coupled flow, heat transfer and deformation of fractured geothermal reservoir is developed. Because of high thermal expansibility and high mobility, supercritical C02 is under consideration as an alternative fluid to water/brine for extracting energy from geothermal reservoir. However, for simulation of CO2 based EGS, two phase flow model should be included and this makes the coupled model far more nonlinear and complex. FEHM which is one of the most robust code developed at LANL is capable to simulate the multi-physics problem of geosciences. We have found that the computational cost for CO2 based EGS a few times higher than that of water based EGS. Due to temperature drawdown and pressure difference between injection and production wells thermo-poro-elastic stresses are induced within the reservoir. This can influence larger shear dislocation, and normal opening /closing of fracture causing changes in the fracture aperture and permeability during the extraction of the geothermal energy from a reservoir. The correlation of the variation of fracture permeability with the variation of the local stress tensor has been taken into account in this study. To study the permeability alteration on geothermal energy extraction for water and CO2  based EGS different fracture networks, different values of injection temperature and injection pressure are considered. Three-dimensional fracture networks of randomly oriented rectangular fractures with different sizes, and dip angles are created using ADFNE Matlab code. A structured computational mesh is created for simulating the multiphase flow, heat transfer and geomechanics. The nodes belonging to the fractures are assigned appropriate permeability, thermal conductivity and mechanical properties depending on the fracture aperture. The values of these properties are subjected to alteration based on local stress values.

How to cite: Adhikary, S. S. and Chaudhuri, A.: Thermo-poro-elastic stress induced aperture alteration of fractured geothermal reservoir and its effect on geothermal energy production, EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-10797, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-10797, 2023.

X4.193
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EGU23-13949
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ECS
Valerian Schuster, Erik Rybacki, Anja M. Schleicher, Trenton T. Cladohous, Roshan Koirala, and Thomas H.W. Göbel

Many reservoir rocks of productive geothermal energy resources display low porosity and matrix permeability. Therefore, to enhance fluid flow, fault zones and natural fracture networks are increasingly targeted for geothermal energy exploitation that are hydraulically connected to geothermal wells by stimulating the reservoir units. To this end, fluid is injected into the reservoir, which is generally believed to reduce effective stress and induce minor slip along stressed faults. Fluid injection can also lead to induced microseismicity and remotely-triggered earthquakes at great distances from the target reservoirs. The Blue Mountain geothermal field produces the largest seismic activity during maintenance shutdowns of injection and production requiring additional mechanisms such as poroelastic stress effects. In order to improve seismic hazard assessment and the understanding of induced seismicity around injection wells, we explore the coupling between matrix permeability, fault zone hydrology and mechanical behavior.

One main goal of this work is to provide insight into the scale-dependence of permeability by comparing laboratory results with previous permeability measurements using tidal responses in three different idle wells in Blue Mountain. We present a series of laboratory experiments performed on rock samples collected from the DB2 well at the Blue Mountain geothermal site in Humboldt County, Nevada, USA. The geothermal field benefits from the intersection of two W- and NW-directed normal faults resulting in high permeability of the geothermal reservoir production zone controlled by a brittle damage zone. Samples were obtained from two different lithologies, both of Triassic age, that constitute the reservoir. The first set of samples are low-porosity, (0.4 vol%) quartz-dominated (~50 – 60 wt%) phyllites, which exhibit zones with pronounced fracturing and elevated porosity (3.8 vol%). The second set of samples are felsic intrusive rocks with moderate to high porosity (7 – 15 vol%) due to strong hydrothermal alteration and clay mineral formation. Samples from both lithologies were selected from different sections of the damage zone showing varying degrees of faulting, from intact to highly brecciated, containing mineralized veins. We determine flow and poroelastic properties of cylindrical samples with a length of 2 cm and a diameter of 5 cm, subjected to stepwise cyclic variation of pore (<40 MPa) and confining pressure (<45 MPa). At each pressure step, we measure volumetric strain changes to derive the bulk modulus and effective stress coefficient, and use steady-state or pore pressure oscillation to determine permeability.

In addition to the tidal response and laboratory results, we developed a high-resolution seismicity catalog based on more than three years of continuous waveforms records from 2016 to 2019. We performed template-matching and differential travel-time inversions and use the resulting seismic events with magnitudes between 0.7 – 2.7 to search for seismicity migration patterns associated with discrete injection events. Integration of field and laboratory results can improve the characterization of the permeability structure of the fault zone at Blue Mountain and help to understand the mechanisms that trigger seismic events during production shutdown as well as the role of poroelastic stress release.

How to cite: Schuster, V., Rybacki, E., Schleicher, A. M., Cladohous, T. T., Koirala, R., and Göbel, T. H. W.: Permeability and Compressibility Evolution of Fractured and Intact Reservoir Rocks from the Blue Mountain Geothermal Field, Nevada, EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-13949, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-13949, 2023.

X4.194
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EGU23-10795
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ECS
Swapnil Kar and Abhijit Chaudhuri

                                        Hydraulic fracturing is a useful stimulation technique to create cracks in unconventional reservoirs and enhance the effective fluid transmissivity to recover gas from natural gas reservoirs or heat from geothermal reservoirs. However, due to fracturing the overall strength and load bearing capacity of the reservoir is compromised. This may be a serious concern if the reservoir is below a dam or any other massive structures. In such case significant settlement can take place as the result of mixed mode fracturing inside the reservoir which might already have natural fractures. Phase field method based on the formulation of mixed-mode fracturing has been adopted in the present work for modeling fracture propagation in a saturated porous medium when subjected to fluid pressure and increasing overburden load. A numerical method has been developed using Finite element method (FEM) for solving the displacement and damage field, and Finite volume method (FVM) for solving flow field due to its flux conservative nature which is automatically satisfied for each FVM cell. Our FEM code alone has been first validated for modelling mixed mode fracturing considering a single fracture as a notch against the published experimental and numerical results for elastic medium subjected to compressive load. In this method, the notch does not have any material and computational mesh is refined around the notch as commonly done by others. We have later developed an alternative method where the pre-existing crack is modelled as a fully damaged zone. In this method, a structured and uniform grid can be used to obtain same fracturing pattern and load-deflection curve. The alternative method has a few advantages such as it can be easily applied for reservoir with many cracks without any grid refinement around the pre-existing cracks, and it can be easily coupled with FVM code for modeling fluid flow. Our numerical modelling code is capable to simulate fracturing along with the branching and merging effects. We have simulated load-bearing capacity of a fractured reservoir subjected to increasing overburden load. The reservoir is considered to consists of many randomly oriented but poorly connected natural fractures. The load-bearing capacity and load-deflection curves are compared for reservoirs with and without hydraulic fracturing. The simulations have been performed for different set of natural fractures to understand the effect of fracture density and other fracture network properties on the load-deflection curves.

How to cite: Kar, S. and Chaudhuri, A.: Phase field method to model mixed-mode fracturing in fluid saturated porous reservoir, EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-10795, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-10795, 2023.

X4.195
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EGU23-9694
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ECS
Ibrahim Harb, Fidel Grandia, Paolo Trinchero, and Jeffrey Hyman

Groundwater accounts for around 25% of the world’s fresh water supply. Due to the increasing anthropogenic pressure on shallow aquifers as well as climate change that is impacting global groundwater recharge, there is an increasing need to access deeper groundwater resources, which are frequently hosted in fractured-rock formations. The migration of groundwater (and other types of fluids, in general) in fractured rocks allows the contact between fluids in geochemical disequilibrium with the host rocks (i.e., large geochemical gradients) promoting water-rock reactions inside the fractures. These reactions may influence the permeability and porosity, as well as they may lead to fracture sealing. So, a thorough understanding of the coupled hydro-chemical processing that occur in fractured media is important for applications such as the sustainable exploitation of the afore-mentioned reserves, the protection and remediations of aquifers used for drinking water production or the safety analyses of deep geological repositories for spent nuclear fuel, energy storage, nuclear waste disposal sites, etc.. In fractured rocks, groundwater flows in specific pathways and interacts with the host rock which may lead to the change in the hydro-geochemical conditions. The prediction of these interactions become critical for a proper management of the different applications. Therefore, the understanding and modelling of fluid-fracture interaction is of high scientific and commercial interest.

Using the software dfnWorks, it is possible to model the fluid transport using a non-reactive Lagrangian method (particle tracking). In this contribution, we intend to implement geochemical reactions in dfnWorks to quantify the impact of these reactions in the fracture network. In fact, flow of water through Discrete Fracture Networks leads to interaction between water and the minerals occurring in the fracture plane and thus alters the underlying groundwater flow patterns. Thus, using these DFN-based reactive transport simulations, we aim at predicting the effect that chemical reactions have on flow and channeling. Besides presenting a proof-of-concept set of calculations, we will also present preliminary results of a real-case application, where fracture filling is produced as a result of a chemical imbalance.

How to cite: Harb, I., Grandia, F., Trinchero, P., and Hyman, J.: Modelling fluid flow and water-rock interaction in fractured crust using a Discrete Fracture Network approach, EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-9694, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-9694, 2023.

X4.196
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EGU23-6830
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ECS
Erica De Paolo, Andrea Bistacchi, Stefano Casiraghi, and Fabio La Valle

The investigation of hydro-mechanical properties in rock formations is of utmost importance for several geological and engineering applications, e.g. for carbon-dioxide or hydrogen underground storage, exploitation of groundwater, geothermal or oil and gas reservoirs, hydrothermal ore deposits, and the mechanics of earthquakes. In particular, modeling fluid flow into networks of discontinuities (i.e. faults and fractures) is a key task in all these studies. Due to the high complexity of such processes, involving a significant number of feedbacks and occurring at different spatial and time scales, the achievement of a satisfying representation of the physical problem remains a challenge.

In the last decades, a variety of modeling approaches have been proposed in literature, accounting for different orders of complexity and using several computational methods. Analytical solutions are commonly based on simplistic assumptions about the process, allowing for simple fracture geometries and/or implying incompressible Newtonian fluids; as well as about the medium, considered elastic and permeable (or impermeable). Nevertheless, these solutions are still widely employed, as they provide significantly quick, first-order solutions compared to more sophisticated approaches.

On the other hand numerical models, typically accounting for a higher number of parameters and concurrent effects, are expected to return more realistic solutions. Those based on Finite Element Methods (FEMs) or similarly discretized domains, for example, permit to model the fractured rock mass with information that can be inferred from geological surveys and geophysical techniques.

As anticipated, important limitations in the use of more advanced modeling approaches could be the computing time and model size or resolution, not always allowing for cost-efficient solutions. In this study, we aim at a comprehensive review and benchmarking of the main classes of existing methods, comparing their results obtained for an identical dataset. In this way, we are able to highlight the advantages and disadvantages of each technique, defining the differences in accuracy and the ranges of applicability of these methods. 

The outcomes of our work are intended as a cross-benchmarking among available models, as well as a starting point for the future development of novel improved techniques in the field of fluid flows dynamics in networks of discontinuities.

How to cite: De Paolo, E., Bistacchi, A., Casiraghi, S., and La Valle, F.: Comparative analysis of analytical and numerical solutions for hydraulic properties upscaling in fractured media, EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-6830, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-6830, 2023.

X4.197
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EGU23-7596
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ECS
Aukje Veltmeijer, Milad Naderloo, and Auke Barnhoorn

Rising demand for energy and green energy has led to increasing subsurface activities, such as geothermal energy sites. These increasing human activities in the subsurface have caused substantial induced earthquakes in more densely populated areas, increasing the risks of operating safely. Well-known examples of induced seismicity, due to geothermal sites, are the M5.4 earthquake in Pohang (South Korea) or the M3.4 earthquake in Basel (Switzerland).  

Monitoring and forecasting earthquakes have been a topic of interest for years. Predictions are often made by production scenarios, probabilistic models, or average earthquake size distribution (b-value). Only a few studies focus on predicting fluid-induced seismicity by using seismic monitoring methods. Pore fluid changes play an important role in the reactivation of the fault strength and stability. Variations in pore pressure can cause a drop in the stresses along the fault plane and cause fault instability and movement resulting in induced seismicity.  Monitoring and predicting the stress changes along the fault planes can therefore be essential in forecasting induced seismicity and mitigation, potentially reducing the risks of operating (in denser populated areas). However, monitoring the degree of these changes remains challenging. Most studies using seismic methods to monitor induced seismicity on a field scale or laboratory scale focus on either passive monitoring or active monitoring. This study combines the two methods and shows how they complement each other in monitoring and mitigation of fault reactivation in the laboratory. We have performed pore fluid injection experiments on faulted sandstones to reactivate the faults while monitoring both actively (active seismic) and passively (acoustic emission).

These results show that both acoustic monitoring techniques can be used to detect the different fault reactivation stages: linear strain build-up, early creep (pre-slip), stress drop (main slip), and continuous sliding phase. However, using active monitoring the early creep phase is detected slightly earlier than using passive monitoring. Combining the methods shows that the stress changes along the fault can be detected with more detail in more accuracy. As a result, the combination of passive and active techniques may be useful for monitoring faulted or critically stressed reservoirs that experience pore pressure changes.

How to cite: Veltmeijer, A., Naderloo, M., and Barnhoorn, A.: Seismic monitoring of laboratory fault reactivation by pore fluid injection, EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-7596, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-7596, 2023.

X4.198
|
EGU23-14955
Silvia De Simone, Caroline Darcel, Hossein A. Kasani, Diego Mas Ivars, and Philippe Davy

Biot coefficient and Skempton coefficient are key descriptors of the coupled hydro-mechanical (HM) behavior of fluid-saturated porous materials. Biot coefficient defines a relationship between an applied load, fluid pressure and the stress that effectively acts on the solid skeleton. Skempton coefficient defines the temporary pore pressure variation caused by the application of a load in undrained conditions. The product of the two coefficients establishes the impact of an applied load on the solid skeleton, and thus the material deformation, under undrained conditions. The two coefficients are generally estimated through analytical expressions valid for isotropic homogeneous materials, or they are experimentally estimated at the laboratory sample-scale.

In this work, we define a framework for the evaluation of equivalent Biot coefficient and Skempton coefficient at the scale of a fractured rock mass. We derive theoretical expressions that estimate the two equivalent coefficients from the properties of both the porous intact rock and the discrete fracture network (DFN), including fractures with different orientation, size, and mechanical properties. These formal expressions are validated against results from fully coupled hydro-mechanical simulations on systems with explicit representation of deformable fractures and rock blocks. We show that the coefficients largely vary with the fracture orientation and density, which implies that disregarding the presence of fractures may incur an incorrect evaluation of the HM response. We also discuss the variability of the coefficients under different settings of DFN properties, including realistic scaling conditions of size-dependent and stress-dependent fracture properties.

How to cite: De Simone, S., Darcel, C., Kasani, H. A., Mas Ivars, D., and Davy, P.: Equivalent Biot and Skempton coefficients for fractured rocks, EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-14955, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-14955, 2023.

Posters virtual: Tue, 25 Apr, 14:00–15:45 | vHall ERE

Chairpersons: Nathaniel Forbes Inskip, Roberto Emanuele Rizzo, Sarah Weihmann
vERE.12
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EGU23-17164
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ECS
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Yujing Meng, Honghan Chen, Yang Luo, Yanchao Zhao, Daqing Tang, and Faqi He

Previous hydrocarbon exploration in the Ordos, Tarim, and Sichuan basins of China has indicated that strike-slip faults play an important role in controlling reservoir distribution. High hydrocarbon production within strike-slip fault zones in these basins indicates that the fault zones not only act as conduits or seals for hydrocarbon migration, but also provide space for hydrocarbon accumulation. The productivity of different wells, however, can vary within one strike-slip fault zone, suggesting that variability in fault zone architecture controls hydrocarbon enrichment. To date, very few studies have explored fault zone architecture in the southern Ordos Basin, inhibiting oil exploration and development. We explored faults in the Jinghe Oilfield in the southern Ordos Basin by integrating outcrops, wellbore cores, well logs, and 3D seismic data. We carried out fault segmentation, qualitative characterization of fault zone architecture, and quantitative characterization of the boundary between the damage zone and wall rock. The results showed that fault zone architecture is complicated by fault segmentation, architectural configuration, and damage zone asymmetry. Strike-slip faults can be divided into transtensional, strike-slip, and transpressional segments along the fault strike, with transtensional and strike-slip segments dominant in the Jinghe Oilfield. Each segment is further complicated by different configurations of gouge, breccia, and fracture zones along the fault dip. Compared with the strike-slip segments, transtensional and transpressional segments showed more complexity, with the fracture density and damage zone width of the hanging wall being greater than that of the footwall. Transtensional segments with braided and horsetail structures showed more complexity owing to the presence of multiple fault cores and damage zones around the main fault and its subsidiary faults. Quantitative analysis showed that the fault zone width was the greatest for transtensional segments, intermediate for transpressional segments, and the lowest for strike-slip segments. We determined a positive linear relationship between the relative widths of the fault core and fault zone. The cavities in breccia zones and fractures in damage zones provide conduits and storage space for hydrocarbon migration and accumulation. We conclude that damage zones in transtensional segments, particularly in the hanging wall, are primary potential targets for petroleum exploration and development.

How to cite: Meng, Y., Chen, H., Luo, Y., Zhao, Y., Tang, D., and He, F.: Architecture of intraplate strike-slip fault zones in theYanchang Formation, Southern Ordos Basin, China: Characterizationand implications for their control on hydrocarbon enrichment, EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 Apr 2023, EGU23-17164, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-17164, 2023.