The two world’s largest ice shelves, the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf (FRIS) and the Ross Ice Shelf (RIS) account for half the area of Antarctic ice shelves. They play a key role in transforming water masses on the shelf and forming Antarctic Bottom Water.

The objective of the work was to study the similarities and differences of circulation under the FRIS and RIS using the data of numerical simulation of currents, temperature, and salinity in the Weddell and Ross Seas from the Whole Antarctica Ocean Model (WAOM). The modelling results were used to run the particle-tracking model Parcels for computing Lagrangian particle trajectories. Three Lagrangian characteristics were calculated for FRIS and RIS: (i) Visitation frequency is defined as the percentage of the particles P visited each 2x2 km grid column at least once in a period of modelling (20 y); (2) Representative particle trajectory is the particle trajectory which deviates least from rest of trajectories; (iii) The mean age is the age of particles visited each 2x2 km grid column at least once.

The representative particle trajectories show that anticyclonic circulation beneath the FRIS and RIS is caused by the inflow of High Salinity Shelf Water (HSSW) through troughs off the western coast of the Weddell and Ross Seas. Transformed into ISW water, it flows out through the troughs in these seas. Part of the transformed water under the FRIS flows out through the Filchner Trough between Berkner Island, while water under RIS flows into the Ross Sea in the strait between Roosevelt Island and the shore. The eastern part of RIS is not ventilated by water inflowing from Ross Island. It is slowly ventilated by water entering a trough between Roosevelt Island and the eastern coast of the Ross Sea. Visitation frequency and representative trajectories suggest similar paths for water mass entering RIS in all seasons. Except December-February particles in anticyclonic gyre can return under RIS. Meanwhile, for particles released in January-August, outflows from FRIS took place through both the Ronne and Filchner ice fronts. In the October-December release the outflow through the Ronne ice front essentially exceeds flow through the Filchner depression.

How to cite: Maderich, V., Bezhenar, R., Brovchenko, I., Fabio Boeira, D., Äijälä, C., and Uotila, P.: Similarities and differences in circulation beneath the Filchner-Ronne and Ross Ice Shelves: Lagrangian point of view, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-2610, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-2610, 2024.

The interannual variability of Antarctic sea ice is considered to be mainly driven by tropospheric and oceanic processes. However, the stratosphere also constitutes a possible source of sea ice variability. The stratospheric variability in the southern high latitudes is dominated by the stratospheric polar vortex (SPV), an extremely cold air mass confined to the pole by strong westerly winds. The SPV is characterized by a large seasonal cycle, peaking in austral winter and breaking down in late spring (with the so-called stratospheric final warming, SFW), but also by interannual variations. While there is robust evidence of a downward impact of the polar stratospheric variability on the Northern Hemisphere surface climate, including sea ice, whether a similar link is present in the Southern Hemisphere is still unsettled.

Here, we perform a multi-model assessment of the impact of the dynamical state of the SPV on Antarctic surface climate and sea ice by applying the same experimental protocol to three state-of-the-art general circulation models (GCMs): EC-EARTH, CMCC-ESM and CanESM. The three GCMs have similar ocean and sea ice components but different atmosphere.

First, we examine 200-year control experiments and compare them to observations. To assess the impact of the SPV state on the surface and sea ice, we build composites of “strong” and “weak” SPV years based on the late-winter stratospheric conditions. We then compare the anomalous patterns of sea ice concentration during the following spring, as well as anomalies of atmospheric fields such as sea-level pressure and surface temperature. To detect the possible downward stratosphere-troposphere coupling, we also compute the temporal evolution of vertical profiles of zonal-mean zonal wind and temperature. A similar analysis is also carried out using composites based on the timing of the SFW (“early” versus “late”).

To further isolate the potential role of the polar stratosphere in driving Antarctic surface climate, we run an additional set of sensitivity experiments with suppressed stratospheric variability. For each model, we build 200-member ensembles of 1-year long runs initialized from the control experiment, with the polar stratosphere nudged to the models' climatology, while the troposphere and the extra-polar stratosphere evolve freely. We then compare the variability of Antarctic sea ice and surface climate in these sensitivity experiments to that of the control run and investigate changes in the suggested mechanisms for the stratospheric downward influence.

How to cite: Mezzina, B., Palmeiro, F. M., and Goosse, H.: Impact of stratospheric polar vortex variability on Antarctic surface climate and sea ice, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-450, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-450, 2024.

This study investigates the Arctic sea ice concentration trend during 1979-2021 and explores why the autumn Arctic sea ice loss is accelerated after 2002 and its trend declining center shifts from the Chukchi Sea to the Barents-Kara-Laptev Seas. Attribution analysis reveals that the enhanced summer sea ice concentration negative trend in large part explains the autumn sea ice concentration accelerating reduction, whereas it is the trend center shift of increased downward longwave radiation that accounts for mostly of the autumn sea ice concentration decline center shift. Further analysis suggests the downward longwave radiation trend is closely related to large-scale atmospheric circulation changes. A tendency towards a dipole structure with an anticyclonic circulation over Greenland and the Arctic Ocean and a cyclonic circulation over Barents-Kara Seas enhances (suppresses) the downward longwave radiation over Western (Eastern) Arctic by warming and moistening (cooling and drying) the lower troposphere during 1979-2001. In comparison, a tendency towards a stronger Ural anticyclone combined with positive phase of the North Atlantic Oscillation pattern significantly promotes the increase of downward longwave radiation over Barents-Kara-Laptev Seas during 2002-2021. Our results set new insights into the Arctic sea ice variability and deepen our understanding of the climate change.

How to cite: Jiang, Z.: Two distinct declining trend of autumn Arctic sea ice concentration before and after 2002, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-2781, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-2781, 2024.

The sea-ice extent (SIE) in the Weddell Sea plays a crucial role in the Antarctic climate system. Many studies have examined its long-term trend, however whether its year-to-year variation has changed remains unclear. We found an amplified year-to-year variance of the Weddell Sea SIE in austral summer since 1998/1999 in observational datasets. Analyses of sea-ice concentration budget and surface fluxes indicate that it is the thermodynamic process that drives the amplification of SIE variations, rather than the sea-ice-drift- related dynamic process. Compared to 1979–1998, the Southern Annular Mode in the preceding spring shows a closer linkage with the Weddell Sea SIE in 1999–2021 through a stronger and more prolonged impact on sea surface temperature, which thermodynamically modulates local sea ice via changing surface heat and radiation fluxes. Our study helps advance the understanding of extreme low Antarctic-SIE records occurring in recent decades and improve future projections of the Antarctic sea-ice variability.

How to cite: Guo, Y., Chen, X., Huang, S., and Wen, Z.: Amplified Interannual Variation of the Summer Sea Ice in the Weddell Sea, Antarctic After the Late 1990s, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-7523, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-7523, 2024.

Sea-ice leads are narrow, linear fractures in sea ice, and are an important basis for understanding the mechanism of the atmosphere-sea ice-ocean system in the Southern Ocean. We use monthly sea-ice lead frequencies based on satellite thermal imagery with 1 km² grid resolution to investigate potential causes for the observed spatial and temporal variabilities of sea-ice leads during wintertime (April-September), 2003-2023, using ERA5 winds and sea level pressure, as well as climate indices El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Southern Annular Mode (SAM). The presented investigation provides evidence for correlations between mean monthly lead frequency and monthly wind divergence, as well as monthly sea level pressure across the majority of the circum-Antarctic regions (significantly in the Weddell Sea, Ross Sea and Amundsen & Bellingshausen Sea). Furthermore, our investigation evaluates the influence of wintertime ENSO and SAM on sea-ice lead patterns in the Southern Ocean. Results reveal a positive correlation between sea-ice leads and SAM, in the Weddell Sea and specific regions of the Ross Sea. Moreover, a positive correlation is found between sea-ice leads and ENSO, particularly in the Ross Sea, Western Pacific Ocean, and certain portions of the Indian Ocean. While the driving mechanisms for these observations are not yet understood in detail, the presented results can contribute to opening new hypotheses on atmospheric forcing and sea-ice interactions. The contribution of atmospheric forcing to regional lead dynamics is complex, and a more profound understanding requires detailed investigations in combination with considerations of ocean processes. This study provides a starting point for further research into the detailed relationships between sea-ice leads and atmosphere, ocean, combined effect of ENSO-SAM, respectively in the Southern Ocean.

How to cite: Dubey, U., Willmes, S., Frost, A., and Heinemann, G.: The impact of atmospheric forcing on wintertime sea-ice lead patterns in the Southern Ocean, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-8422, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-8422, 2024.

To date, few Earth System Models (ESMs) have the ability to simulate the flow in the ocean cavities below Antarctic ice shelves and its influence on basal melting.  Yet capturing both this flow and the resulting melt patterns is critical for representing local, regional, and global feedbacks between the climate and sub-ice-shelf melting.  Here, we present a small ensemble of historical simulations and SSP3-7.0 projections in an ESM that includes Antarctic ice-shelf cavities, the Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SM) v2.1.  The simulations have active ocean, sea-ice, atmosphere, land and river components.  The model domain has 12 km horizontal resolution around Antarctica, which is adequate for capturing dynamics in the larger ice-shelf cavities, melt fluxes aggregated across Antarctic regions, and water masses across most of the Antarctic continental shelf. The projections show significant warming and freshening of water masses on the Antarctic continental shelf, a deepening and poleward shift of the Amundsen Sea Low (ASL), and a significant increase in Antarctic melting through the 20th and 21st centuries.  We also see a significantly more modest drift in water-mass properties and melt rates in our control simulation with constant 1950 conditions from which the historical runs were branched.  In addition to providing an estimate of future melting and other changes in regional and global climate under SSP3-7.0, these simulations are also a steppingstone to coupled ice sheet-ocean simulations planned for the near future.  We briefly discuss these plans and the coupling strategy that we are developing.

How to cite: Asay-Davis, X., Comeau, D., Barthel, A., Begeman, C., Lin, W., Petersen, M., Price, S., Roberts, A., Vankova, I., Veneziani, M., Wolfe, J., and Zhang, S.: SSP3-7.0 projections of Antarctic sub-ice-shelf melting with the Energy Exascale Earth System Model, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-8652, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-8652, 2024.

The historical runs of CMIP6-era coupled climate models generally exhibit negative biases in Antarctic sea ice, as identified across a range of models during the CMIP6 simulations (Roach et al. 2020). The UK's national coupled climate model, HadGEM3, has been no exception to this. The CMIP6 version, HadGEM3-GC3, underestimated Antarctic sea ice in historical simulations owing to a Southern Ocean warm bias (Andrews et al. 2020). As part of the DEFIANT (Drivers and Effects of Fluctuations in sea Ice in the ANTarctic) project, in this research we perform an analysis of the representation of sea ice in HadGEM3-GC5, a more recent version of the coupled model. Analysis of existing HadGEM3-GC5 simulations has identified unrealistic convection events associated with open water polynyas. We have started to perform a suite of sensitivity experiments to investigate the importance of the freshwater budget and ocean mixing parameterisation scheme on these convection events, and subsequently on pan-Antarctic sea ice. These initial experiments take the form of short simulations with constant year-2000 forcings, incorporating various parameter perturbations and modifications to freshwater input. We present evidence of the improved characterisation of pan-Antarctic sea ice in HadGEM3-GC5 compared to HadGEM3-GC3, and the preliminary analysis of perturbation simulations aimed at understanding and addressing the remaining challenges in the model coupled climate system.

How to cite: Bilge, T., Naughten, K., Holland, P., Blockley, E., Storkey, D., and Ridley, J.: Towards an improved Antarctic sea-ice representation in HadGEM3-GC5, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-10555, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-10555, 2024.

During space reentry, satellites undergo ablation in the Mesosphere, leading to the dispersion of ablated material across the globe. The Mesospheric circulation efficiently concentrates this material into the polar winter stratosphere, from where its fate is not well known. Historically, the mass of satellite debris has been significantly smaller than that of naturally occurring meteoroids. The meteoric material also undergoes ablation and deposit similar material, which is transported to the poles and can be observed in Greenland ice cores. With the current exponential increase in the number of launched satellites, the mass of the satellite debris will go from negligible to surpassing the mass of natural meteoric material within the next few years. Here, the quantity and composition of material to be expected in the polar stratosphere the coming years are presented. The question is raised: What potential impacts will the drastic increase of satellite debris have on the polar atmosphere/cryosphere?

How to cite: Megner, L.: Should we worry about the massive increase of satellite reentry debris in the polar regions?, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-14537, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-14537, 2024.

Cyclones are an important driver of heat and moisture transport into the Arctic and additionally cause high wind speeds and abrupt wind direction changes during their passage. The subsequent impacts on the Arctic sea ice cover consist of i) a thermodynamic stalling/enhancement of the seasonal sea-ice growth/melt, and ii) enhanced drift and deformation of sea ice. The statistical quantification of these cyclone impacts on the Arctic sea-ice cover is a very recent research topic.

By conducting a climatological monthly analysis based on the ERA5 reanalysis and a cyclone tracking algorithm, we reveal a distinct seasonal cycle of cyclone impacts on sea-ice concentration in the Atlantic Arctic Ocean (strong impacts from autumn to spring, but weak impacts in summer). We further demonstrate that the cyclone impacts have changed significantly throughout the last four decades in a warming Arctic, magnitude-wise strongest in the Barents Sea in autumn.

Still, open questions remain with respect to the impacts of cyclones on the Arctic sea ice in the present climate and regarding their possible changes in a warming Arctic. Specifically, the influence of cyclone passages on the formation of leads in the sea-ice cover has not been statistically analyzed so far. Thus, we extend our analysis to cyclone related changes in sea-ice lead fraction derived from horizontally high-resolved (down to 1km²) MODIS sea-ice observations.

Our results indicate that cyclone passages significantly increase sea-ice lead fraction in large parts of the central Arctic Ocean. Mixed results are found for the Arctic marginal seas. The analysis of particular cyclone cases further suggests that groups of consecutive cyclones traversing the sea ice within short time are particularly effective in driving changes in sea-ice concentration and lead fraction. The statistical quantification of the importance of such a temporal clustering of cyclones for their sea-ice impacts is topic of ongoing research.

How to cite: Aue, L. and Rinke, A.: Advancing the understanding of cyclone impacts on Arctic sea-ice concentration and sea-ice lead formation, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-15589, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-15589, 2024.

How to cite: Price, R., Field, P. R., Engdahl, B. J. K., Landgren, O., Rinke, A., and Orr, A.: Simulating Arctic aerosol-cloud interactions in a warm air intrusion event during the MOSAiC campaign, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-16385, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-16385, 2024.

In the Arctic ocean, open leads have the ability to release sea spray into the atmosphere. However, the magnitude and seasonality of this flux are relatively unknown, which is a limitation to our understanding of the polar climate. Most atmospheric models do not include sea spray from leads, because of the lack of existing parameterization. In this work we propose a parameterization for sea spray fluxes from open leads in the Arctic, which leverages aerosol flux measurements from a past campaign combined with the latest generation of sea ice modeling.

Based on our parameterization, the annual total emitted mass of sea salt from open leads, [0.1–1.5] Tg/yr, is comparable to emissions from blowing snow and to the transported mass of sea salt from open ocean coming from the lower latitudes. Furthermore, the seasonality of open lead and blowing snow sea salt emissions have opposite phases, and their spatial distribution across the Arctic is also different. Therefore, we find that including both open lead and blowing snow sea salt fluxes can improve the reproduction of the annual cycle of sea salt aerosol atmospheric concentration at high latitude stations.

Using sea ice concentration fields from the neXtSimv2 sea ice model and implementing our parameterization in the WRF-Chem chemistry-transport model, we evaluate the impacts of open lead emissions on sea salt concentrations and clouds in the high Arctic.

How to cite: Lapere, R., Thomas, J. L., Marelle, L., and Rampal, P.: Bounding the contribution of open leads to sea spray aerosol emissions in the high Arctic, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-16632, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-16632, 2024.

We created 4 retrospective hindcasts using PARASO, a five-component (ice sheet, ocean, sea ice, atmosphere, and land) fully coupled regional climate model over an Antarctic circumpolar domain: a control run forced with reanalysis data from ERA5 and ORAS5, and an ensemble of 3 members forced by 3 different EC-Earth global hindcasts. We compare the ocean and sea ice properties of the ERA5-driven simulation to the ensemble mean of the EC-Earth-driven ones, to separate the impact of the different source of boundary conditions from internal variability generated by the different ensemble members. Moreover, we analyse if and how the different ocean temperatures and sea ice extents influence the formation of clouds. We compare the moisture and heat fluxes at the ocean surface between the EC-Earth-driven ensemble and the ERA5-driven hindcast, as well as the moisture and cloud water contents in the atmosphere. This not only provides information on the contribution of external and internal variability inside the PARASO domain for those variables, but by comparing the variability in fluxes to the variability of clouds, we can also estimate the importance of ocean-cloud-interactions. Our results also show that the increasing trend observed in Antarctic sea ice extent observed prior to 2015 is well represented in the ERA5-driven run, but not in the EC-Earth-driven ensemble, indicating a stronger influence of mid-latitude forcings compared to local processes. 

How to cite: Sauerland, F., Huot, P.-V., Marchi, S., Goosse, H., and van Lipzig, N.: Changes of clouds and sea ice in EC-Earth- and ERA5-driven retrospective ensemble hindcasts with the fully coupled ice-sheet–ocean–sea ice–atmosphere–land circum-Antarctic model PARASO, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-17682, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-17682, 2024.

A prerequisite for understanding the local, regional, and hemispherical impacts of Arctic sea-ice decline on the atmosphere is to quantify the effects of sea-ice concentration (SIC) on the turbulent surface fluxes of sensible and latent heat in the Arctic.

The best available information in data-sparse regions such as the Arctic is provided by global atmospheric reanalyses. Because each reanalysis uses its own forecast model, data-assimilation system, and often also different atmospheric and surface observations to create the data sets, their atmospheric and surface variables, and boundary conditions often differ. While the differences between reanalyses in variables SIC, latent and sensible heat flux have been demonstrated via comparisons against observations and inter-comparisons between reanalyses, how much these data sets scatter in the effects of SIC on surface turbulent fluxes is not known.

To fill these knowledge gaps, we analyse these effects utilising four global atmospheric reanalyses: ERA5, JRA-55, MERRA-2, and NCEP/CFSR (CFSR and CFSv2), and evaluate their uncertainties arising from inter-reanalysis differences in SIC and in the sensitivity of the turbulent surface fluxes to SIC.

Using daily field means in nine Arctic basins, the magnitude of the differences in SIC is up to 0.15, but typically around 0.05 during all four seasons. Bilateral orthogonal-distance regression analyses indicate that the greatest sensitivity of both the latent and the sensible heat flux to SIC occurs in the cold season, November to April. For these months, using daily means of data, the average sensitivity is 400 W m^-2 for the latent heat flux and over 800 W m^‑2 for the sensible heat flux per unit of SIC (change of SIC from 0 to 1, positive sign referring to the downward flux). The differences between reanalyses are as large as 300 W m^-2 for the latent heat flux and 600 W m^-2 for the sensible heat flux per unit of SIC. The sensitivity is highest for the NCEP/CFSR reanalysis. Comparing two study periods 1980–2000 and 2001–2021, we find that the effect of SIC on turbulent surface fluxes has weakened, due to the increasing surface temperature of sea ice and the sea-ice decline.

Multilateral ordinary-least-square regression analyses show that the effect of SIC on turbulent surface fluxes arises mostly via its effect on atmosphere-surface differences in temperature and specific humidity, whereas the effect of SIC on wind speed (via surface roughness and atmospheric-boundary-layer stratification) partly cancels out in the turbulent surface fluxes, as the wind speed increases the magnitude of both upward and downward fluxes.

How to cite: Uhlíková, T., Vihma, T., Karpechko, A., and Uotila, P.: Effects of Arctic sea-ice concentration on turbulent surface fluxes in four atmospheric reanalyses, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-381, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-381, 2024.

Polar lows (PLs) are intense mesoscale cyclones that form over polar oceans during colder months. Characterized by high wind speeds and heavy precipitation, they profoundly impact coastal communities, shipping, and offshore activities. Amid the substantial environmental changes in polar regions due to global warming, PLs are expected to undergo noteworthy transformations. In this study, we investigate the response of PL development in the Barents Sea to climate warming based on two representative PLs. Sensitivity experiments were conducted including the PLs in the present climate and the PLs in a pseudo-global warming scenario projected by the late 21st century for SSP 2-4.5 and SSP 3-7.0 scenarios from CMIP6. In both warming climate scenarios, there is an anticipated decrease in PL intensity, in terms of the maximum surface wind speed and minimum sea level pressure. Despite the foreseen increase in latent heat release in the future climate, contributing to the enhancement of PL intensity, other primary factors such as decreased baroclinic instability, heightened atmospheric static stability, and reduced overall surface heat fluxes play pivotal roles in the overall decrease in PL intensity in the Barents Sea under warming conditions. The augmentation of surface latent heat flux, however, results in increased precipitation associated with PLs by enhancing the latent heat release. Furthermore, the regional steering flow shifts in the warming climate can influence the trajectory of PLs during their development.

How to cite: Lin, T., Rutgersson, A., and Wu, L.: Development of Polar Lows in Future Climate Scenarios over the Barents Sea, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-9796, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-9796, 2024.

The ocean and sea ice play an important role in the Antarctic climate system, and the atmosphere plays an important role in forcing the sea ice and the ocean. A better understanding of these interactions is needed to understand recent changes and anticipate future changes in the Antarctic. ​

We present a regional ocean model MetROMS-UHel for a quarter-degree resolution domain of the Antarctic Ocean. MetROMS-UHel is based on the MetROMS-Iceshelf model that uses ROMS (Regional Ocean Modeling System), with ocean-ice shelf thermodynamics. For the sea ice, MetROMS-Iceshelf uses CICE (Community Ice CodE) 5.1.2., while MetROMS-UHel has been updated to CICE 6.3.1. We run both models with two different atmospheric forcings, ERA-Interim (ECMWF Re-Analysis ERA-Interim from 1992 to 2018) and ERA5 (ECMWF Reanalysis v5 from 1992 to 2023). The atmospheric reanalysis plays an important role in the results, and this way we see which changes are due to the updated sea-ice model and which are from the updated atmospheric forcing.

The models simulate the interannual variability of the Antarctic sea ice extent reasonably well. The sea ice extent is similar for all model runs and close to observed in all seasons except JFM. In JFM the extent varies between the models especially in the Ross and Weddell Seas, with the largest, and closest to observed extent produced by the MetROMS-UHel CICE 6, ERA5 run. Important watermasses are well represented by the models, with cold waters being slightly fresher in the MetROMS-UHel runs.

How to cite: Äijälä, C., Nie, Y., Gutierrez-Loza, L., De Falco, C., Lauvset, S. K., Cheng, B., and Uotila, P.: Updated sea ice code and atmospheric forcing improve the Antarctic summer sea ice of an ocean model, EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 Apr 2024, EGU24-5533, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-5533, 2024.