The Foresail-2 and Foresail-3 satellites form part of the COnstellation of Radiation BElt Survey (CORBES), a mission led by COSPAR to study the dynamics of Earth's radiation belts [Wu et al., 2024]. 
Designed to advance our understanding of space weather, the mission requires highly precise magnetospheric measurements to capture proxies of geomagnetic activity and radiation belt behaviour [Anger et al., 2023]. 
To this end, each satellite in the constellation is outfitted with a state-of-the-art fluxgate magnetometer.

The Fluxgate Magnetometer Aboard the ForeSail cubesaT (MAST) was developed by the Space Research Institute of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IWF). 
MAST is a miniaturized, CubeSat-optimized adaptation of the technology employed in the FIELDS instrument suite aboard NASA's Magnetospheric Multiscale (MMS) mission [Torbert et al., 2016]. 
Central to this innovation is the Magnetometer Frontend Application-Specific Integrated Circuit (MFA), which has been comprehensively redesigned and miniaturized to meet the strict size, mass, and power constraints of nanosatellite platforms.

To ensure accurate magnetic measurements for this mission, the sensor must be mounted at least 50 centimetres from the spacecraft bus to mitigate magnetic contamination from onboard electronics. 
It communicates with the Instrument Control Unit (ICU)—located within the satellite—via UV-protected twisted pair cables, which help suppress electrical interference. Despite its advanced capabilities, the ICU is remarkably compact, occupying a volume of just 14.6 by 8.4 by 3 cm³.

System-level testing has confirmed robust communication between the magnetometer and the satellite’s command and data handling system using a redundant RS485 interface. 
To further validate the full sensor system, a preliminary boom deployment test was conducted using a 3D-printed prototype of the magnetometer boom. 
This early-stage test confirmed the mechanical design and deployment mechanics under controlled conditions. 
Following the successful prototype trial, a metallic flight-like version of the boom has been manufactured and is currently undergoing rigorous functional and environmental testing. 
These tests aim to verify the boom's deployment reliability, structural integrity, and tolerance to launch and space conditions, ensuring its suitability for both the CORBES mission and potential adaptation in future deep space applications.

While initially designed for near-Earth space weather monitoring, the MAST architecture is scalable and holds significant potential for use in interplanetary and planetary missions. Accurate magnetic field measurements are fundamental not only for radiation belt studies, but also for understanding the solar wind interaction with planetary magnetospheres, crustal magnetic anomalies, and plasma environments throughout the solar system.

Future adaptations of the MAST system could support deep space missions to bodies such as Mars, Jupiter’s moons, or asteroids, where magnetic field characterization contributes to objectives ranging from habitability assessment to planetary formation studies. 
The low mass and power footprint of the MAST system makes it particularly attractive for resource-constrained platforms, such as small satellite constellations, ride-along payloads, or even instrument packages on landers and rovers.

By building on the technical developments from the CORBES initiative and the heritage of the MMS mission the MAST system provides a solution for magnetic field investigations across a wide spectrum of space science missions—from low Earth orbit to the outer solar system.

[Wu et al. 2024] Wu J., Deng L., Praks J. et al. ”CORBES: radiation belt survey with international small satellite constellation”, Advances in Space Research, 2024, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2024.04.051
[Anger et al. 2023] Anger M., Niemel¨a P., Cheremetiev K. et al. ”Foresail-2: Space Physics Mission in a Challenging Environment”, Space Sci Rev 219, 66, 2023, doi: 10.1007/s11214-023-01012-7
[Torbert et al. 2016] Torbert RB., Russell CT., Magnes W. et al., ”The fields instrument suite on MMS: scientific objectives, measurements, and data products”, Space Sci Rev, 2016, 199:105–135, doi: 10.1007/s11214-014-0109-8

How to cite: Anger, M., Shalamov, R., Steinhoefler, R., Fischer, D., and Praks, J.: Flux Gate Magentometer and Boom for Cubesat Mission Beyond Low Earth Orbit, EPSC-DPS Joint Meeting 2025, Helsinki, Finland, 7–13 Sep 2025, EPSC-DPS2025-71, https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc-dps2025-71, 2025.

A unique virtual model of the interactions between galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) and the regolith in the Von Kármán crater in the South Pole Aitken basin (SPA basin) has been constructed using the BDSIM particle simulation environment, built on the Geant4 physics code. This project is the first use of BDSIM to model an extraterrestrial environment.

The model consists of a new synthetic composition for the regolith surrounding the Chang’e-4 probe, a series of GCR spectra and a simulation architecture. This measures the neutron flux, proton albedo and cosmogenic samarium and gadolinium populations within a 2-metre depth homogenous tranche of simulated lunar material. It was configured partly to produce secondary neutron production rates to be used as inputs to the LUCRES regolith gardening simulator.

Fig 1: Flowchart of the project, with references to internal sections.

The input composition is a synthesis of Kaguya orbiter, Yutu-2 and Chang’e-6 sample return data taken synthesised from various sources into an approximation of the elemental weight percent of the regolith in the Von Kármán crater, with major, minor and trace elements modelled. These data were analysed to give a mineral distribution of olivine, clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene and feldspar and then processes with numerical tools from Bütner and Putirka to produce elemental weight percentages for major element components. The minor element, Titanium, was sourced from Yutu-2 observations and converted into elemental weight percent using the previously described methods. The trace element distributions were taken from Chang’e-6 data and selected for this purpose by matching the bulk composition of Chang’e-6 regolith samples to that of the synthetic Von Kármán samples described previously.

The simulation input GCR spectrum that was fired at the lunar material was a recreation of the spectrum described by Li et al. While some of the authors for LUCRES provided a detailed GCR spectrum (mainly protons and alpha particles), their data and physics lists were difficult to integrate into BDSIM. Therefore, the project used the GCR model from Li et al. (2017), which was already compatible with Geant4. Though LUCRES collaborators noted that different solar modulation factors (a parametrisation of the sun’s effect on interstellar galactic cosmic rays) affect neutron flux, this study found that higher-energy GCRs (which are less affected by modulation) are primarily responsible for neutron production. In contrast, lower-energy GCRs (more affected by modulation) significantly influence proton albedo, although this was less apparent in the results of this project. As a result, different modulation factors were tested in simulations to assess their impact on albedo. The GCR spectrum was modelled in BDSIM as an external source of particles and generated a Monte-Carlo sampled particle distributions according to the chosen modulation factors.

Proton albedo was measured within the simulation with a scoring mesh at the surface that recorded retrograde movement of protons. Two different solar modulation factors (ϕ) were tested and showed that there is limited difference between the albedo distributions for different values of ϕ at this significance level. The outputs of this simulation are shown in fig 2 with proton albedo data from the Chang’e-4 rover (LND) and the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (CRaTER). These data fall directly onto the curve of the proton albedo produced in this simulation, and the REDMoon simulation used by Xu et al (2022) falls within the bounds of the BDSIM simulation. The left side of the REDMoon simulation (between 60 and 10 MeV) diverges from the BDSIM simulation as the REDMoon simulation uses a different GCR input (CREME96) that has a solar particle contamination at the lower energies, as shown in the blue band in the figure. This contamination is not present in the BDSIM input and has been removed from the current version of the CRÈME GCR simulation.

Fig 2: Proton albedo from BDSIM shown with that of Xu et al (using REDMoon).

Neutron flux was simulated as a function of depth within the regolith column. Total neutron populations were measured, but the thermal neutron flux that causes cosmogenic Sm and Gd production was too low to be statistically significant. While cosmogenic Sm and Gd were produced in this simulation, future runs will require larger numbers of incident particles to produce significant thermal neutron induced Sm and Gd populations, which can be used in the gardening simulation LUCRES. Analysis of the meteorite NWA 2995 in conjunction with the BDSIM total neutron flux distribution at depth shows that the thermal neutron flux peak may be deeper into the regolith than the total neutron flux peak.

Fig 3: Neutron flux in regolith tranche with sample NWA 2995 shown at predicted depth and the point on curve (pink triangle). This demonstrates the difference in depth of peak all neutron and thermal neutron flux.

This project suggests an inquiry to settle the dispute between the BDSIM and REDMoon proton albedo predictions at the lower energy ranges may be of value to make sure use of different GCR models are appropriate in future predictions. The architecture of BDSIM can be used to produce static profiles of future drill cores that can be collected in the planned future exploration of the SPA basin, primarily by the Chinese space program. No drill cores have been collected from the Moon in the last half a century, and simulations like this (and the challenges with their configuration) show how crucial this kind of sample can be to the understanding of space weathering processes like gardening and GCR interactions. The SPA basin is extremely understudied compared to other lunar terranes, and the authors strongly suggest this region as an ideal candidate for human exploration, especially in the context of drill core return, as such samples have only ever been collected by humans.

This project therefore recommends the deployment of a segmented silicon solid state proton dosimetry device at the surface of the Moon to measure albedo within the 10-60 MeV range and the return of a regolith drill core for the analysis for cosmogenic samarium and gadolinium populations with comparative analysis with other material thought to be from the SPA region.

How to cite: Rix, M., Shields, W., and Ghail, R.: Modelling the Radiative Environment of the Lunar South Pole Aitken basin. , EPSC-DPS Joint Meeting 2025, Helsinki, Finland, 7–13 Sep 2025, EPSC-DPS2025-65, https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc-dps2025-65, 2025.

Introduction:  The MoonIS instrument is a VIS-IR spectrometer onboard the Emirates Lunar Mission (ELM) of the Mohammed Bin Rashid Space Centre (MBRSC). The mission is part of the MBRSC lunar exploration program and involves the development and launch of the series of "Rashid" lunar rovers. The Rashid Rover 3 has the aim of exploring the lunar South Pole region with a suite of dedicated instruments. MoonIS spectrometer is  a heritage of the MA_MISS instrument on board the Rosalind Franklin rover of the ESA ExoMars mission [1]. The launch of the mission is scheduled for 2028 and it will explore a polar area including Permanent Shadowed Region (PSR).

 Mission main objectives: The rover is designed to travel and explore areas of interest located in the South Lunar Pole region with the aim of:

• Examining the geographic and geological features of the lunar polar region​
• Analyzing the geological characteristics of the Lunar South Pole, examining the surface properties and composition of the soil.
• Exploring the Permanent Shadowed Region (PSR)
• Studying the presence of water in the southern polar region, identifying ice and hydroxyl on the surface and under the surface.

 Lunar Permanent Shadowed Regions (PSRs) and presence of ice: The lunar PSRs are expected to host large quantities of water-ice, which are key for sustainable exploration of the Moon [2-4]. Characterizing water ice in the PSRs is a primary goal of lunar science and exploration. Nevertheless, only limited information is available about the amount and distribution of ice within PSRs because the orbital imagery obtained to date lacks sufficient resolution and/or signal. Also, it is extremely debated the fine-scale geomorphology of the areas hosting ice and if the ice is superficial or if it is present immediately under the surface. Permanently shadowed regions on the Moon and other solar system bodies [5-10]  act as cold traps for the accumulation of water ice and other volatiles, which are thought to have been released over time by impacts of comets, asteroids, or even possible outgassing and interaction of the surface with the solar wind [11], or related to the formation of pits or volcanic outgassing [12,13]. The origin of water ice in the PSRs through the solar system is still disputed  and the study of lunar PSRs could help in understanding the history of volatiles on the lunar surface and on other planetary bodies. Moreover, in case of exogenic origin water ice would represent a record of icy planetesimals scattering history in the early solar system.  The  Moon’s spin axis is nearly perpendicular to the ecliptic, creating cold traps in polar craters where water ice could accumulate and be preserved over geological timescales.   In situ investigations are therefore essential to better understand the nature of the ice and its abundance. For this reason, several space agencies are planning to utilize rovers to better investigate water-ice and overall surface composition within PSRs. This is a high priority step necessary to pave the way for future human exploration.

The MoonIS instrument:  MoonIS  is designed to acquire spectra of the lunar surface in the 0.4-2.3 μm spectral range. The MoonIS spectrometer design is inherited from the Ma_MISS [1] instrument aboard the ESA’s ExoMars Rosalind Franklin Rover, but with improvements in the optical head design, calibration target, thermomechanical, and electronics design. In particular, MoonIS Optical Head (OH) will be mounted on the rover mast and connected through optical fibers to the spectrometer unit housed on the rover bus. Each fiber is coupled to a dedicated optical element in the OH to allow it to observe the scene while the other end is coupled to the spectrometer’s slit. This configuration allows to disperse the signal of each fiber across multiple pixels on the detector. The resulting hyperspectral image consists of the same number of “spots” on the detector as the number of fibers that will be accommodated and acquired. The area in front and surrounding the rover is scanned through the rover mast rotations that will allow it to investigate the entire region. Using this concept, MoonIS will acquire  images of multiple “pseudo-pixels”, thanks to the mast and rover movements. An external Calibration Target for radiometric and spectral calibration  is also being considered. MoonIS will be equipped with an illumination system, capable of illuminating the region of interest in the PSRs.

Main scientific objectives: The instrument is designed to achieve high-quality, advanced scientific results in characterizing the composition of the lunar surface. A key focus is the identification, distribution, and analysis of water ice, one of the mission's primary objectives. In this respect, MoonIS spectral range will allow a thorough investigation of several diagnostic water ice absorption features, namely at 1.04 µm, 1.25 µm, 1.5 µm and 2 µm being important indicators of water ice grain size and abundance [7]. The main goals can be summarized as follows:

• identify and distinguish H₂O and OH;
• evaluate the amount of H₂O and OH and their distribution;
• characterize H₂O physical properties (grain size, temperature);
• recognize the main class of lunar rocks;
• identify and quantify different minerals (e.g. pyroxenes, olivines, feldspars, spinels, etc.);
• identify different mixtures and determine their spatial distribution.

MoonIS characteristics in terms of S/N, spectral resolution,  range, and spatial resolution are suitable to achieve the above mentioned goals both in the sun-illuminated regions and in the PSR, the primary focus of the mission. 

Acknowledgments: This work is granted by Accordo ASI – INAF n. 2024-64-HH.0. The instrument is funded by ASI and manufactured by Leonardo S.p.A. (Italy).

References: [1] De Sanctis et al. (2017) (2017): Astrobiology 17, 6, 7. [2]  McCubbin et al. (2015) American Mineralogist 100: 1668-1707. [3] Honniball et al. (2021) Nature Astronomy 5: 121-127. [4] Pieters et al. (2009) Science, 326, 568–572. [5] Filacchione et al. (2020), MNRAS, 498, 1308-1318. [6] Raponi et al. (2018), Science Advances, 4, 3. [7] Deutsch et al. (2016), Icarus, 280, 158. [8] Paige et al. (2013), Science, 339, 300-303. [9] Schorghofer et al. (2016), GRL, 43,13. [10] Ermakov et al. (2017), GRL, 44,6. [11] Yeo et al. (2025), JGR, 130, 3. [12]  D.T. Blewett et al, Science 333 (2011). [13] P.K. Byrne et al. In: GRL 43.14 (2016)

How to cite: De Sanctis, M. C., Altieri, F., Biondi, D., De Angelis, S., Rossi, L., Ferrari, M., Filacchione, G., Ciarniello, M., Formisano, M., Frigeri, A., Raponi, A., Galluzzi, V., Ammannito, E., Pepe, R., and Regolini, J.: MoonIS Spectrometer on RASHID Lunar Rover, EPSC-DPS Joint Meeting 2025, Helsinki, Finland, 7–13 Sep 2025, EPSC-DPS2025-587, https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc-dps2025-587, 2025.

We present calibration results of the Magnetic Anomaly Particle Spectrometer (MAPS), a combined ion and electron spectrometer on the upcoming Lunar Vertex investigation. The Lunar Vertex investigation is part of the Payloads and Research Investigations on the Surface of the Moon (PRISM) program, a commercial lander developed by Intuitive Machines under the Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program.  Lunar Vertex will target the Reiner Gamma swirl and magnetic anomaly and is expected to reach the moon in 2025-2026.

 As part of the PRISM Lunar Vertex investigation, the MAPS plasma spectrometer will measure the energy, flux, and direction of thermal to supra-thermal ions and electrons from the impinging solar wind that reach the lunar surface. MAPS is a combined ion and electron spectrometer with heritage from Rosetta/IES and is a sibling experiment to the upcoming solar wind monitor SWiPS. It measures ions and electrons from 10 eV/q to 17.5 keV/q with a 292.5°x90° FOV.

MAPS was calibrated at Southwest Research Institute’s ion and electron calibration facilities, with proton and electron beams down to 156 eV. We present preliminary analysis results of MAPS angular and energy response.  

How to cite: Pontoni, A., Kataria, D., Grubbs, G., Mokashi, P., Elder, C., Perryman, R., Tantham, B., Escobedo, S., Miller, G., Llera, K., and Jahn, J.-M.: Calibration results of the Magnetic Anomaly Plasma Spectrometer on Lunar Vertex, EPSC-DPS Joint Meeting 2025, Helsinki, Finland, 7–13 Sep 2025, EPSC-DPS2025-1173, https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc-dps2025-1173, 2025.

LUNINA is an in-situ navigation and communication node. The proposed platform is designed to be a compact, independent, cost effective, robust, and location independent navigation beacon and communication relay on the Moon that can operate 24/7. The design draws from the European Space Agency (ESA)-funded MiniPINS LINS platform [1], developed for long-term deployment in the Schrödinger crater but adaptable to other lunar environments with sufficient sunlight. Each LINS unit incorporates a Radioactive Heating Unit (RHU) to maintain functionality during the cold lunar night and uses solar panels and batteries for continuous power.

LUNINA serves two primary purposes: navigation and communication. As a navigation aid, each node emits signals that support line-of-sight users on the  surface and orbiting spacecraft, providing critical assistance for tasks such as landing and launch operations. When deployed at elevated locations, the nodes enhance surface navigation by offering precise positioning. For communication, LUNINA functions as a relay for data transfer between ground and orbit-based users. The elevated placement of nodes allows them to cover larger surface areas and relay messages through a network configuration. This capability supports both localized communication near lunar bases and broader applications across the Moon's surface.

Figure 1: LUNINA nodes (in red dots) in Schrödinger crater around the Lunar Base (green dot).

The platform functions as a durable communication and navigation network for lunar missions. The default payload for LUNINA is a communication system, which facilitates seamless integration into lunar infrastructure. Designed as a "drop and forget" solution, the system offers long-term reliability for safe and flexible lunar exploration.

Figure 2: Different applications of the LUNINA node.

The inclusion of an RHU would allow the thermalization of the in-situ LUNINA unit during the Lunar night, where energy storage need may lead to unaffordable battery volumes. Radioisotope power systems utilising americium-241 as a heat source fuel have been under development in Europe since 2009 as part of a European Space Agency funded programme [2].

The LUNINA platform will support different navigation methods. Utilizing signals from multiple nodes enhances navigational accuracy for landing and launch operations. As part of the broader Lunar Communications and Navigation Services (LCNS) initiative, the system’s modular design allows for future upgrades to maintain compatibility with evolving infrastructure.

Key Features:

1. Compactness: Derived from the MiniPINS LINS platform.

2. Independence: Capable of continuous 24/7 operation.

3. Cost-Effectiveness: Using the heritage LINS, standardized parts and systems, the costs of development is minimized. Once node is developed, the node can be mass produced, bringing down its cost.

4. Robustness and Modularity: Supports standardized interfaces and updatable software.

5. Durability: Designed for long-term operation with upgradable software.

6. Location Independence: Deployable anywhere on the Moon.

References:

[1] Genzer M., et al. "MiniPINS - Miniature Planetary In-situ Sensors," EGU General Assembly 2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu21-11282.

[2] Ambrosi et al., "European Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs) and Radioisotope Heater Units (RHUs) for Space Science and Exploration," Space Sci Rev 215, 55 (2019), https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-019-0623-9.

How to cite: Kestilä, A., Haukka, H., Arruego, I., Harri, A.-M., Genzer, M., Apéstigue, V., Hieta, M., Camañes, C., Ortega, C., Kivekäs, J., and Koskimaa, P.: Lunar In-situ Navigation and Communication Node - LUNINA, EPSC-DPS Joint Meeting 2025, Helsinki, Finland, 7–13 Sep 2025, EPSC-DPS2025-1326, https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc-dps2025-1326, 2025.

Introduction:

The Lunar Thermal Mapper (LTM) is a multispectral infrared radiometer, built by the Oxford Physics Instrumentation Group for the Lunar Trailblazer mission; a small satellite launched in February 2025 under NASA’s Small Innovative Missions for Planetary Exploration (SIMPLEx). Trailblazer aims to advance our understanding of the lunar water cycle by mapping surface temperature, water abundance, distribution and form (OH, H₂O, ice) and silicate lithology (i.e., Si-O Christiansen spectral feature). LTM was developed to improve upon existing infrared instrumentation in lunar orbit (e.g., Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment, hereafter referred to as Diviner) to provide higher resolution temperature estimations and refine interpretations of thermophysical properties at the surface [2, 3]. Accurately determining surface temperatures on airless bodies is essential for deriving emissivity spectral features (such as the Christiansen Feature and Restrahlen bands, which are diagnostic of silicate lithologies) that are representative of the surface. Temperature errors can affect spectral shape, resulting in the misidentification of surface composition [5, 8]. 

Our team compared six methods for estimating LTM’s brightness temperature (BT), including the temperature retrieval approach used by Diviner, to (1) determine which method provides the most representative surface temperature and (2) assess how variations in BT estimation affect derived emissivity spectral shape. Despite challenges facing the Trailblazer mission, refining methods for BT estimation remains relevant to the planetary community, as future missions continue to depend on infrared instrumentation and accurate BT retrievals for remote compositional interpretation (e.g., LEAP, L-CIRiS, Europa Clipper).  

Instrumentation:

LTM is a 15-channel infrared imager that covers a range between 6 to 100 µm [2,3]. LTM advances infrared compositional analysis by incorporating eleven narrowband compositional filters across the 6.25 to 10 µm range. This expanded spectral coverage enables more precise characterization of key features, such as the Christiansen Feature, Reststrahlen bands, and transparency features, which are essential for identifying spectral endmembers (Table 1) [2,3].  

LTM builds upon Diviner, a nine-channel instrument that has a broad spectral range from 0.3 to 400 µm (Table 1) [1]. Diviner’s three narrowband compositional channels, 7.55–8.05 µm (Channel 3), 8.10–8.40 µm (Channel 4), and 8.38–8.60 µm (Channel 5), are specifically tuned to capture the Christiansen Feature (CF), an emissivity peak that is diagnostic of broad silicate mineralogy and sensitive to variations in silica content [1,4].  

Table 1: LTM and Diviner observational parameters.

Methodology:

To assess BT and emissivity retrieval techniques for LTM, we measured four lunar analog samples under controlled laboratory conditions to retrieve high-resolution emission spectra. These laboratory spectra were down-sampled to match LTM’s narrowband spectral resolution. Six BT estimation methods were tested to determine how effectively each method preserved laboratory spectral shape and temperature. The following section describes the laboratory setup and the BT estimation methods examined in this study.

Laboratory: Using the PASCALE (Planetary Analogue Surface Chamber for Asteroids and Lunar Environments) in conjunction with a Bruker 70V Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrometer, we conducted thermal infrared measurements of four volcanic lunar analogue samples; dunite (Twin Sisters -1 and -2), basalt (BIR-1) and rhyolite (RGM-1) under controlled ambient conditions (350 K, 1000 mbar, N₂ atmosphere) [4]. The integration of PASCALE with FTIR allows for the acquisition of thermal emission spectra (as opposed to typical laboratory reflectance), offering a more representative analog of data collected by orbiting infrared instrumentation. Spectra were measured across ~6000 to 350 cm⁻¹ at a resolution of 4 cm⁻¹. Quality assurance and calibration procedures followed established protocols outlined in [6,7,8]. 

BT Estimations: To evaluate BT performance at LTM’s spectral resolution, each sample’s measured radiance was convolved with LTM’s filter response to simulate instrument-resolution radiance. The resulting spectra were converted to BT using the Planck function. Seven distinct methods were applied to the LTM-resolution BT data to determine the maximum BT values for each sample (Table 2). Emissivity was subsequently derived as the ratio between the observed LTM-resolution radiance and an ideal blackbody at the retrieved maximum BT for each method across all samples. The accuracy of the BT estimation methods was assessed by comparing the resulting emissivity spectra and maximum BT values to the full laboratory reference data (350K and full resolution emissivity). Additionally, a focused comparison with Diviner’s BT retrieval method was conducted to identify method-specific discrepancies and evaluate cross-instrument consistency.

Table 2: BT estimation methods

Results & Discussion:

Six BT estimation methods were applied to laboratory emissivity spectra of four lunar analogue samples (dunite, basalt, and rhyolite), as shown in Figure 2. The associated standard errors (SE) for each method are reported in Table 3. Among the tested approaches, four methods (3^rd degree polynomial, quadratic, spline and narrowband maximum) showed close agreement with high-resolution laboratory spectra (Figure 2). Temperature variations across compositions were minor, with low SE values (Table 3).  Since the spline fit did not significantly outperform the simpler polynomial or narrowband methods, lower complexity approaches are preferred for LTM temperature retrievals, with a maximum SE of 3.42%.

In contrast, due to limited spectral sampling, the Diviner method underestimates surface temperatures by up to 19 K (SE max: 5.55%) in the dunite (TS-2) sample. Expanding this analysis to include a broader range of lithologies or impacted processed samples would help assess whether the Diviner approach (and potential other methods with sparse spectral sampling) introduce systematic shifts in the Christiansen Feature (CF) position or affect the spectral shape relative to more spectrally resolved techniques.  

Table 3: BT estimations and associated SE of temperature for dunite (TS-1, TS-2), basalt (BIR-1) and rhyolite (RGM-1).

Fig 2: Six BT methods are fitted to laboratory emissivity spectra of four lunar analogues.

Conclusion:

Comparisons between BT estimation methods indicate the 3rd-degree polynomial, quadratic, and narrowband maximum methods offer the best agreement with laboratory data (SE max: 3.42%). Although Diviner’s method tends to underestimate surface temperatures (up to 19 K), it still preserves spectral shape and wavelength range, supporting the reliability of compositional interpretations. Expanding the dataset to include a broader range of compositions could confirm whether different approaches result in systematic shifts in the Christiansen Feature across different lithologies. This work enhances the accuracy of remote compositional interpretation and supports future exploration on airless bodies.

How to cite: Henderson, F., Habib, N., Shirley, K., and Bowles, N.: Lunar Trailblazer: Improving Brightness Temperature Estimation Methods and Applications of Temperature Retrieval for Future Missions, EPSC-DPS Joint Meeting 2025, Helsinki, Finland, 7–13 Sep 2025, EPSC-DPS2025-1861, https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc-dps2025-1861, 2025.

The Mars Magnetosphere ATmosphere Ionosphere and Space-weather SciencE (M-MATISSE) mission is an ESA Medium-class (M7) Phase A candidate. Its twin orbiters—Henri and Marguerite—operate in complementary eccentric trajectories to sample Mars’s magnetosphere–ionosphere–thermosphere (MIT) system under varying solar-wind conditions. Science objectives include (1) mapping MIT coupling, (2) characterizing the radiation environment, and (3) probing ionosphere–surface interactions.

The Science Ground Segment (SGS) at ESAC brings over two decades of mission-operations heritage—supporting Mars Express, ExoMars, BepiColombo, and JUICE, between others—providing end-to-end planning, health monitoring, and quick-look analysis using tools such as MAPPS/EPS-AGM and SPICE. The Mars Science Centre (MSC) adds specialist scientific oversight: defining observation strategies, refining event triggers, and ensuring agile responses to space-weather alerts and transient phenomena.

Long-Term Planning (LTP), conducted at least six months before science operations, converts high-level objectives into:

• Observation Definitions (ObsDefs): generic templates for instrument modes (continuous, burst, event-driven), pointing and calibration requirements, and inter-instrument coordination.

• Resource Envelopes: power, data-rate, and thermal budgets for each ObsDef, generated via MAPPS/EPS-AGM to guarantee feasibility under worst-case margins.

• Preliminary Event Files: time-tagged orbital and geometric triggers—e.g., altitude crossings, solar-longitude markers, alignment windows—that drive ObsDef activation and feed into Medium-Term (MTP) and Short-Term Planning (STP).

By front-loading these products, SGS and MSC ensure that all six instruments (COMPASS, M-EPI, M-MSA, M-SoSpIM, MaCro, M-AC) can seamlessly transition between routine monitoring and rapid-response campaigns, maximizing scientific return within spacecraft constraints.

The LTP poster translates these products into a clear visual planning aid, highlighting representative mission-critical windows and sample plots rather than an exhaustive list. Key elements include:

• Annotated Eclipse & Occultation Intervals: shadow passages and Earth–line-of-sight losses, showing when instruments switch to safe or calibration modes.

• Flyby & Alignment Opportunities: selected Phobos/Deimos close approaches and inter-spacecraft proximity events, illustrating windows for radio-science occultations and coordinated measurements.

• Orbit-Regime Passages: representative sheath, magnetotail, and induced-magnetosphere boundary intervals, derived from SPICE-based analyses, indicating when to switch ObsDefs.

• Data-Rate Forecasts: sample bitrate-vs.-time curves annotated with solar-longitude markers, guiding allocation of high-data-volume burst modes.

• Trigger-Timeline Charts: simplified periapsis altitude and geometry plots labeled with example windows (e.g., terminator-ionosphere, dayside vs. nightside passes).

Each figure is annotated with relevant parameters—solar longitude (Ls), solar-zenith-angle ranges, and spacecraft altitudes—to guide science and operations teams in correlating orbital geometry with ObsDef activation. By presenting a curated set of examples, the poster serves as an actionable blueprint, ensuring transparent communication of planning constraints and opportunities, and preparing M-MATISSE to capture both steady-state and transient Martian space-weather phenomena.

How to cite: Marín-Yaseli de la Parra, J., Sánchez-Cano, B., Witasse, O., Sánchez-Cabezudo, D., Leblanc, F., Escalante Lopez, A., Andrews, D., Nakamura, Y., Tellmann, S., González Galindo, F., Holmberg, M., Barczynski, K., Kolmašová, I., and Riu, L. and the M-Matisse team: Long-Term Planning Framework and Key Scientific Inputs for the M-MATISSE mission, EPSC-DPS Joint Meeting 2025, Helsinki, Finland, 7–13 Sep 2025, EPSC-DPS2025-298, https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc-dps2025-298, 2025.

The "Mars Magnetosphere ATmosphere Ionosphere and Space-weather SciencE (M-MATISSE)" mission, downselected for ESA's Phase A M-class call, aims to explore how the Martian Magnetosphere-Ionosphere-Thermosphere (MIT) system responds to space weather and impacts Mars' lower atmosphere and surface. Utilizing two orbiters with specialized payloads, M-MATISSE will offer a unique dual-perspective to study the plasma environment from Mars' surface to space, marking the first comprehensive global analysis of the planet’s atmospheric dynamics. Both M-MATISSE spacecraft will have 6 instruments with high TRL and enough time and spatial resolution and accuracy to resolve the system dynamics. Among the various sensors, the Mars Mass Spectrum Analyzer (M-MSA) is the instrument dedicated to plasma the composition analysis. It consists of a couple of electrostatic deflectors to acquire a hemispherical field of view, and a top hat for the energy-per-charge analysis, followed by a time-of-flight (TOF) chamber to determine ion mass-per-charge. M-MSA is designed to characterize ions escaping from the Martian atmosphere and the processes of escape, as well as to measure the ions in the solar wind (from 2 eV/e up to 38 keV/e). A notable feature of M-MSA instrument is that the TOF chamber is polarized with a linear electric field, which results in isochronous TOFs and enhanced mass resolution (typically, m/Δm ≈ 40). In this presentation, we will describe the design and operating principles of M-MSA, along with its scientific objectives at Mars.

How to cite: Hadid, L. and the M-MSA/M-MATISSE team: The Mars - Mass Spectrum Analyzer (M-MSA) on board the M-MATISSE mission, EPSC-DPS Joint Meeting 2025, Helsinki, Finland, 7–13 Sep 2025, EPSC-DPS2025-1546, https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc-dps2025-1546, 2025.

Introduction: In-situ resource utilization on the Moon has gained significant interest for future lunar missions. Of particular interest is the presence of water, as its utilization would facilitate long-term missions and an extended human presence on the lunar surface while also reducing costs. Therefore, increased efforts to detect, characterize, and map lunar water resources have been made in recent years. Indirect evidence for the existence of water, predominantly in the polar regions, was obtained by various remote sensing missions such as the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter [1, 2]. Earth-based investigation of lunar soil samples, such as those returned by the Chang’E-5 mission, provided direct evidence for water [3]. However, the lunar water abundance, spatial distribution, and temporal variation are still not fully understood.

Permittivity Sensors: In-situ water ice detection and quantification can be performed by employing permittivity sensors [4]. They measure a material’s complex electric permittivity, which is related to the bulk capacitance of the material mixture. The lunar surface material is a combination of regolith, vacuum, and – if present – water ice. Due to the significant difference between the (static) relative permittivities of water/ice (typically ε_r ~ 80 [5]), lunar regolith (typically ε_r ~ 5 [6]), and vacuum (ε_r ~ 1), a measurement of this property can be used to constrain a sample’s composition and in particular to derive its water ice content. In addition to the permittivity measurement, knowledge of the temperature at the measurement location is essential to accurately evaluate and interpret the sensor data, as the permittivity of the lunar regolith is temperature-dependent, especially in the presence of a water ice fraction [7]. The capabilities of permittivity sensors for space science have already been demonstrated successfully on missions such as Cassini-Huygens [8] and Rosetta [9]. Due to the extremely low conductivity of lunar surface materials, simplified instrument concepts can be employed on the Moon.

The Rover Permittivity Sensor (RPS): RPS is developed as a contribution of ESA to an upcoming UAE rover mission to the polar region of the Moon [10]. It is designed for in-situ investigation of the regolith in the shallow subsurface and is an evolution of the permittivity sensor used in the PROSPECT instrument package [11]. Mounted on a rover wheel, it allows the determination of the regolith’s density, porosity, and water ice fraction at various locations along the rover track. The sensor comprises an electronics unit inside the rover body, which is connected via a slip ring to the electrodes on the rover wheel. The temperature measurement required to evaluate the data of the permittivity sensor is performed by two distinct sensors. A resistive temperature detector (RTD) for direct temperature measurement is integrated into one electrode and comes into contact with the regolith at the electrode-soil interface to provide a direct measurement. An additional temperature measurement is performed using an infrared sensor mounted at the front of the rover.

Figure 1: Prototype of a measurement electrode with an integrated resistive temperature detector attached to a rover wheel.

The RPS Infrared Temperature Measurement Unit (TU): The infrared temperature measurement unit determines the temperature of the undisturbed regolith surface in front of the rover. It therefore provides important contextual data for the permittivity measurement in combination with the RTD integrated in the electrode. To reduce the effects of IR radiation from the rover itself and avoid the exposure of the sensor element to direct sunlight, the IR temperature measurement unit is mounted to the rover body at an angle that minimizes the effect of these error sources.

The main element of the IR temperature measurement unit are thermopile sensors, which consist of multiple thermocouples connected in series. The voltage at the sensor output depends on the temperature difference between the area exposed to the incoming IR radiation and the substrate of the chip. A precise knowledge of the substrate temperature is essential to determine the absolute temperature of the IR radiation. Commercial thermopiles typically have an integrated negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor to determine the substrate temperature. The infrared temperature measurement unit uses an external RTD instead of an NTC thermistor, which is more suitable for measurements at low temperatures, which are expected during operation on the Moon.

A performed feasibility study demonstrated the sensors’ compatibility with cryogenic temperatures and the linearity and sensitivity of the signal. The tests were performed at temperatures between - 130°C and - 40°C, representative of the surface temperature range expected during operation on the Moon. Based on its outcome, we selected the most promising sensor for a detailed study, including the investigation of its signal-to-noise level at different temperatures, the repeatability of the measurement, the variation between different sensors of the same series, and different designs of the TU. We will also investigate the sensitivity of the TU regarding regolith properties determining its emissivity, such as the material composition, grain size distribution, and temperature.

Figure 2: Prototype of the IR temperature measurement unit.

References:

[1] Colaprete, A. et al. (2010) Science 330, 463–468. [2] Hayne P. O. et al. (2015) Icarus 255, 58–69 (2015). [3] Liu, J. et al. (2022) Nature Communications 13, 3119. [4] Gscheidle, C. et al. (2024) Frontiers in Space Technologies 4. [5] Uematsu, M. and Franck, E. U. (1980) Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data 9.4 1291-1306. [6] Chung, D. H. et al. (1972) Proceedings of the Lunar Science Conference, vol. 3, p. 3161. Vol. 3. [7] Nurge, Mark A. (2012) Planetary and Space Science 65.1 76-82. [8] Fulchignoni, M. et al. (2002) Space Sci. Rev. 104, 395–431. [9] Seidensticker, K. J. et al. (2007) Space Sci. Rev. 128, 301–337. [10] Trautner, R. et al. (2024) European Lunar Symposium. [11] Trautner, R. et al. (2021) Measurement Science and Technology 32.12 125117.

How to cite: Eckert, L., Gscheidle, C., Šeško, R., Trautner, R., and Reiss, P.: An Infrared Temperature Measurement Unit for the Rover Permittivity Sensor, EPSC-DPS Joint Meeting 2025, Helsinki, Finland, 7–13 Sep 2025, EPSC-DPS2025-661, https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc-dps2025-661, 2025.

Introduction

The Neptune Orbital Survey and TRitOn MissiOn (NOSTROMO) is a mission concept aimed to explore the ice giant Neptune and its icy moon Triton, with the goal to advance our understanding of ice giant systems and their role in planetary formation both within and beyond our Solar System. Aligned with ESA’s Voyage 2050 plan, NOSTROMO aims to reveal the processes that formed the outer Solar System, provide insights for interpreting the mini-Neptunes exoplanets and enhance our understanding on potential habitable zones beyond Earth.

Science Objectives

The main goal of the NOSTROMO mission is to conduct an exploration of Neptune and its moon Triton, aimed to enhance our understanding on the planetary system formation and evolution of ice giants and their moons. This is done by studying Neptune’s atmospheric dynamics, magnetic field, and interior structure, as well as Triton’s surface composition, interior dynamics and possibility of possessing a subsurface ocean. NOSTROMO plans to also investigate the moon’s potential for habitability. In general, the mission aims to enhance our understanding of the outer Solar System and provide insights into interpreting mini-Neptune-like exoplanets.

The three primary scientific questions that NOSTROMO will address are the following:

SQ-1: How did Neptune and other ice giants form and evolve, and what can they reveal about planetary system formation, including exoplanets?

SQ-2: What is Triton’s origin and geological evolution, and how does it inform us about captured KBOs and early Solar System history?

SQ-3: Could Triton support habitability, and what do its plumes and subsurface features suggest about habitable zones beyond Earth?

Payload

The NOSTROMO spacecraft (Fig.1) is equipped with a suite of seven scientific instruments to explore Neptune and its icy moon Triton. Each instrument has been carefully selected and adapted from proven heritage systems to operate in the extreme environments of the outer Solar System, addressing key scientific questions about planetary formation, atmospheric dynamics, magnetospheric interactions, composition, and potential habitability.

The payload includes a Magnetometer in a dual fluxgate and scalar sensor configuration, derived from JUICE J-MAG, to investigate Neptune’s unique magnetic field and probe Triton’s internal conductivity for signs of subsurface oceans. A Particle Suite, adapted partially from JUICE PEP, features a mass spectrometer, ion and electron detectors, and an Energetic Neutral Atom (ENA) camera to study plasma environments and particle composition around Neptune and Triton in high resolution.

For visual observations, a set of Optical Cameras; a Narrow Angle Camera (NAC) and Wide-Angle Camera (WAC), based on Rosetta heritage, will image Triton’s surface and Neptune’s dynamic atmosphere. A Radio Science instrument will use Doppler tracking to map the gravity fields and internal structures of both bodies.

An UltraViolet imaging Spectrometer (UVS), with heritage from Europa Clipper and Cassini, will enable studies of aurorae, lightning, and plume activity, while also conducting stellar and solar occultations for atmospheric analysis. A VIS-NIR Spectrometer derived from OSIRIS-REx will perform chemical mapping of Neptune’s atmosphere and Triton’s surface and plume deposits, with different observation modes and high spectral resolution.

Finally, a Thermal Infrared Imaging Spectrometer, inspired by BepiColombo’s MERTIS, will deliver global thermal and emissivity maps of Triton, enabling the identification of thermal anomalies, surface activity, composition and potential cryovolcanic features.

Mission and spacecraft overview

The interplanetary mission follows an EEJN (Earth-Earth-Jupiter-Neptune) transfer sequence, with the primary launch window targeted for March 2041 and a backup opportunity in April 2042. After launch, the spacecraft will perform a deep space maneuver, followed by an Earth swing-by in 2043 and a Jupiter gravity assist in 2045. Arrival at Neptune is scheduled for September 2061, following a 20.5 year journey.

Upon arrival, the spacecraft will enter a highly elliptical retrograde orbit around Neptune with an eccentricity of 0.98 and a periapsis of 1000 km above the 1 bar reference of Neptune’s atmosphere. Subsequently, the apoapsis is lowered to achieve an eccentricity of 0.88 enabling global observations of Neptune’s surface, atmosphere, and magnetic field close to periapsis. This science phase will image 20% of Neptune’s surface, covering up to 20° of latitude north and south of the equator, and enhanced coverage in select areas.

Following the Neptune science phase, the spacecraft transfers into a Triton orbit using Tisserand leveraging maneuvers. The spacecraft will settle into a near-circular, 200 km altitude orbit with an 87° inclination. This configuration will allow a 3.16 year science campaign to achieve 90% surface coverage of Triton, including detailed observations of its smaller and possibly active surface features such as cryoplumes.

At the end of its operational life, the spacecraft will transfer to a 700 km graveyard orbit using an additional 120 m/s of Δv. Alternatively, a more stable Neptune-centered disposal orbit may be considered, at the cost of 625 m/s of Δv. The total mission Δv budget is estimated at 3957 m/s.

Operating in the remote environment of Neptune imposes several constraints that drive the spacecraft design. These include significant travel time, extremely low solar irradiance, and limited communication capabilities. Most significantly, the low solar flux at the Neptune system makes using solar power impractical. Therefore, americium-241 radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) were selected as nuclear power sources. Due to the low development stage of these RTGs in particular, and the high cost of RTGs in general, mission cost reduction was another design driver. The significant travel distance necessitates a very large fuel load, resulting in a mass of 8.1 t when the spacecraft is fully fueled and a mass of 2.3 t without fuel. Given the long development timeline and the estimated mission cost, including risk margin, of 1.42 billion euros, this mission concept falls into the ESA Large-class. This further aligns with the ESA Voyage 2050 senior committee final recommendations, where a Large-class mission is recommended to address the “Moons of the Giant Planets” theme.

Figure 1: NOSTROMO spacecraft design with annotated instrumentation: NOSTROMO spacecraft upright (left) and as it would appear in orbit (right), with the planet-facing side directed downward and the MAG boom deployed. Height: 4.5 m, Diameter incl. RTGs: 2.9 m.

How to cite: Van den Neucker, A., Pirker, L., Moutsiana, G., Ohm, A., Rommel, Q., Bühler, A., McCloskey, D., Formánek, T., Saz Ulibarrena, V., Knutsen, E., and Kargl, G.: Neptune Orbital Survey and TRiton Orbiter MissiOn (NOSTROMO): A Mission Concept to Explore the Neptune-Triton System. , EPSC-DPS Joint Meeting 2025, Helsinki, Finland, 7–13 Sep 2025, EPSC-DPS2025-156, https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc-dps2025-156, 2025.

Introduction

Fiber optic sensors [1] are suitable for the challenges posed by space missions. They are resilient to electromagnetic interference – which ensures reliable measurements in electrically noisy environments – have low power requirements, and their lightweight and flexible nature allows for highly compact architectures and high mass savings. For the last two decades, the European Space Agency (ESA) has invested in fiber optic sensors for spacecrafts, having implemented this technology in the Basic Angle Measurement (BAM) sensor on ESA’s GAIA mission and in the JUICE magnetometer (J-MAG) on ESA’s JUICE mission [2]. Still, fiber optic sensors dedicated to chemical characterization – named fiber optic chemical sensors, FOCS [3,4] – have yet to be explored in space applications. It is our belief that FOCS are worthy additions to a new generation of in-situ chemical characterization techniques [5]. Herein, we call attention to the potentialities of FOCS and showcase ongoing efforts to build space mission-dedicated prototypes.

The analytical advantages of FOCS in space missions: Besides being inherently space-suitable, FOCS complement the existent suite of chemical characterization payloads. They may seamlessly interact with the environment, by probing it directly (Figure 1A) and requiring neither sample collection nor preparation. They are equally appropriate for characterizing gaseous and liquid phase environments, require small sample volumes, and can analyze multiple analytes simultaneously (resorting to different fibers connected to a shared control unit). FOCS also provide a versatile platform to different sensing strategies, previously applied to the biomedical, environmental monitoring, oil and gas and food industries [3]. Intending to argue for their applicability to the space industry, we are developing extrinsic fluorescent FOCS tailored to future space mission targets. Extrinsic FOCS use an optical fiber only to transport light to and from a responsive material, in opposition to the fiber being the sensor itself; the adopted extrinsic architecture (Figure 1) allows for higher analyte specificity. We developed off-on fluorescent responsive materials to maximize the sensitivity of our FOCS.

Results

Towards characterizing hydrocarbons in icy moons: We developed FOCS capable of detecting hydrocarbons of interest through reaction-based schemes. In an environment like Titan’s, such sensors would address both the limitations of mass spectrometry in differentiating between hydrocarbon isomers and the low specificity of infrared (IR) spectroscopy.

We simulated the detection of butadiene (C₄H₆) on Titan’s surface. To address the slow reaction kinetics expected at Titan’s low temperatures, we focused on click reactions enabled by the Carboni-Lindsey mechanism [6]. It consists of a fast and selective reaction between a 1,2,4,5-tetrazine molecule and an olefin (butadiene, in our application), producing as its sole by-product N₂, the major component of Titan’s atmosphere. Being an irreversible reaction mechanism, it accumulates signal over time, an adequate approach to low analyte concentrations [7]. We tested several tetrazine substituents to optimize the reaction kinetics and uncovered a tetrazine derivative (tz) which reacts with butadiene to form a dihidro-pyridazine molecule (dh-pyr). It produces a high emissivity product, generating an off-on fluorescence signal at 450 nm (Figure 2A), making the selected tetrazine derivative (tz) an ideal indicator of butadiene. The immobilization of tetrazine molecules in polyurethane-based membranes produces physical sensors resistant to leaching in hydrocarbon environments. Their electronic incorporation is ongoing.

Towards quantifying the pH of the subsurface water oceans in icy worlds: FOCS have been applied to marine environments [8] and their pH measurements exhibited high sensitivity within the analytical range of the indicators [3]. We are developing pH FOCS to benchmark this technology against alternative strategies meant to quantify the pH of extraterrestrial aqueous bodies, such as the Enceladus alkaline subsurface ocean with an estimated pH = 8.5–10.5 and an ammonia volume mixing ratio of 0.8% (~3.6 × 10⁻⁴ M) [9], [10]. So far, the immobilization of known pH indicators in polymeric membranes demonstrated negligible leaching in aqueous solutions and fast responses to ammonia-induced pH variations (Figure 2B).

Conclusions and Future Work

FOCS are a stablished sensing paradigm able to withstand challenging working conditions, in miniaturized setups with low power requirements. Also, they can be easily integrated onto existing, space-qualified, fluorescence spectrometers. Ongoing efforts to demonstrate its temperature robustness and photobleaching resistance will further demonstrate that FOCS should be considered for the new generation of scientific payloads dedicated to the chemical characterization of extraterrestrial environments, such as icy moons.

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge funding by Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) (UIDB/00100/2020, UIDP/00100/2020, LA/P/0056/ 2020, UIDB/04565/2020, UIDP/04565/2020, LA/P/ 0140/2020, 2021.04932.BD, and2024.01442.BD). This work has the financial support of FCT for project ORIGINS (2022.05284.PTDC).

References

[1] Elsherif, M. et al. Adv Photonics Res 3, 2100371 (2022)

[2] McKenzie, I. et al. Front Phys 9, 719441 (2021)

[3] Wang, X. D. et al. Anal Chem 92, 397–430 (2020)

[4] Nguyen, T. H. et al. in Optical Fibre Sensors 239–288 (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2020)

[5] Abrahamsson, V. et al. Front Astron Space Sci 9, 959670 (2022)

[6] Oliveira, B. L. et al. Chem Soc Rev 46, 4895–4950 (2017)

[7] Yang, Y. et al. Chem Rev 113, 192–270 (2013)

[8] Qian, Y. et al. Sens Actuators B Chem 260, 86–105 (2018)

[9] Hsu, H.-W. et al. Nature 519, 207–210 (2015)

[10] Waite, J. H. et al. Nature 460, 487–490 (2009)

Figure 1. Bifurcated optical fiber and spectrometer (A) used in our laboratory to demonstrate the miniaturization capabilities of FOCS. In an envisioned implementation of our sensors, an analyte-sensitive membrane (B) interacts with the environment, while its fluorescence signal is monitored through the optical fiber. Credit: Sarspec.

Figure 2. (A) Response of a tetrazine derivative to butadiene through a click-chemistry reaction, producing significant variations in the absorption (top) and emission (bottom) spectra. (B) Color response of bromophenol blue immobilized in a polystyrene membrane to an ammonia solution ([NH₃] = 66 mM).

How to cite: Gonçalves, D., Pedrosa, L., Manuel Orench-Benvenutti, J., Pedras, B., and Martins, Z.: Fiber optic chemical sensors for the in-situ characterization of icy moons, EPSC-DPS Joint Meeting 2025, Helsinki, Finland, 7–13 Sep 2025, EPSC-DPS2025-194, https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc-dps2025-194, 2025.

Introduction: Enceladus Thermal Mapper (ETM) is an Oxford-built high-heritage instrument that is being developed for outer solar system operations. ETM is based upon the design of Lunar Thermal Mapper (LTM, launched on Lunar Trailblazer, Fig. 1). It has a strong heritage story, including MIRMIS (on Comet Interceptor), Compact Modular Sounder (on TechDemoSat-1) and filters shared with Lunar Diviner (on Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter).

ETM is a miniaturized thermal infrared multispectral imager, with space for 15 spectral channels (bandpasses) that can be tailored to the mission requirements. It consists of a five-mirror telescope and optical system and an uncooled microbolometer detector array. Real-time calibration is achieved using a motorized mirror to point to an onboard blackbody target and empty space. ETM has an IFOV of 35 mm, so assuming a 100 30 km orbit it will have a spatial resolution of 40 to 70 m/pixel and a swath width of 14 - 27 km.

ETM Updates: Through UK Space Agency funding we have developed three areas of ETM: its filter profile, radiation tolerance and sensitivity to Enceladus-like surfaces.

Filters: ETM is a push broom thermal mapper, which works by the detector being swept over a surface. Each of the detector’s 15 channels is made up 16 rows, which are coadded to increase the signal to noise. A recently completed preliminary study has updated ETM’s bandpasses to include filters between 6.25 mm and 200 mm to enable it to detect Enceladus’ polar winter (<50 K), nighttime (50-60 K), daytime (70-80 K) and active region temperatures (>170 K). Depending on the mission goals not all channels need to be utilised to achieve this, making some available for additional studies (e.g. searching for salt).

Radiation: The radiation environments of Enceladus are vastly different to those of the Moon. Recent radiation testing and analysis showed that the majority of ETM’s existing design is already highly radiation tolerant. With some additional shielding and one component change all parts can reach the radiation hardness required to operate in the Saturn-system. The additional shielding may be provided by the spacecraft structure, depending on the adopted design.

Sensitivity: ETM’s sensitivity to cryogenic surfaces is currently predicted through a well-characterised model. However, as part of the LTM calibration campaign we plan to directly measure its sensitivity to <50 K surfaces, comparable with those observed on Enceladus. The experiment and the required bespoke components have been designed, and the additional equipment required has been procured. We anticipate the testing will continue through 2025 and 2026 as part of the LTM calibration campaign.

Conclusion: Enceladus Thermal Mapper has strong heritage for remote sensing of airless bodies in the solar system. This work has strengthened the instrument design making it even more suitable for long-term operations in outer solar system environments and observing surfaces at cryogenic temperatures. This makes ETM the ideal choice for future missions to study surfaces of outer solar system moons, asteroids, comets and other such targets.

Acknowledgements: We thank the UK Space Agency’s Bilateral Program for its support, making this work possible.

How to cite: Howett, C., Bowles, N., Evans, R., Clatworthy, T., Ramm, W., Woodhams, C., Lyster, D., Hawkins, G., and Warren, T.:  Developing Oxford’s Enceladus Thermal Mapper (ETM), EPSC-DPS Joint Meeting 2025, Helsinki, Finland, 7–13 Sep 2025, EPSC-DPS2025-1859, https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc-dps2025-1859, 2025.

Imaging of fluxes of Energetic Neutral Atoms (ENAs) had provided a means to improve our understanding of global magnetospheric and heliospheric processes since the mid-1990s.  The remarkable science results from ENA-imaging-based studies of magnetospheres from missions such as IMAGE (2000-2005) and TWINS (2008-2016) at Earth and Cassini (2004-2017) at Saturn had made ENA imaging a well-established and popular technique in space physics research. ENA imaging continues today with missions like IBEX (Interstellar Boundary Explorer) and Mars Express, interplanetary spacecraft en route to Jupiter (JUICE) and Mercury (BepiColombo), and upcoming IMAP (Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe). We review our efforts to adapt a simulator of ENA production to predict Low- to High-Energy Neutral Atoms (LHENAs) observations from imagers in support of planetary exploration. We emphasize the key steps implemented into our simulation tool to enhance our computational capability to predict and/or analyze the detection of neutral atoms with energies of 100's of eV to 100's of keV that are produced in the magnetospheres of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. We discuss the different models of ions, neutral species and magnetic fields used in our LHENAs simulator. We present results from different case studies to highlight the capability of our simulator to assist in the planning and interpretation of data from future, ongoing, and past planetary missions. We compare results of our simulator with Cassini ENA observations for validation purposes and show our LHENAs predictions for the JUICE mission, as well as for future exploration of the ice giants. We also discuss our path forward for future investigations of Earth's and Mercury's magnetospheres. 

How to cite: Santos-Costa, D., Pontoni, A., Grava, C., Mukherjee, J., André, N., Nénon, Q., Smith, H. T., Mitchell, D. G., Kollmann, P., Clark, G., and Brandt, P.: A framework to predict Low- to High-Energy Neutral Atoms (LHENAs) Observations in Support of Planetary Exploration, EPSC-DPS Joint Meeting 2025, Helsinki, Finland, 7–13 Sep 2025, EPSC-DPS2025-170, https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc-dps2025-170, 2025.

The M-MATISSE mission, currently in its Phase A study by the European Space Agency (ESA), is a Medium-class (M7) candidate that aims to explore the complex interactions between Mars' magnetosphere, ionosphere, and thermosphere (MIT coupling). The mission comprises identical payloads aboard the two spacecraft Henri and Marguerite.

The two spacecraft will follow elliptical orbits with a common pericenter at 250 km altitude, but differing apocenters at 3,000 km and 10,000 km, respectively. This configuration enables a comprehensive analysis of the Martian plasma environment and allows for the separation of temporal and spatial variabilities.

The MaCro instrument, utilizing an inter-satellite radio link, will investigate atmospheric occultation events from 1,000 km altitude down to the surface—encompassing both the ionosphere and the neutral atmosphere. Occultations occur when one spacecraft is obscured by the Martian disk as viewed from the other (see Figure above). Operating simultaneously at UHF and S-band frequencies, the MaCro instrument allows for a clear distinction between the ionospheric plasma and the neutral atmosphere.

The instrumentation includes two software-defined transceivers (SDRs) operating at UHF and S-band, each stabilized by a Master Reference Oscillator (MRO). The primary observables are the Doppler shift of the carrier frequency—induced by the bending of the radio signal in the atmosphere and ionosphere—and the received signal power.

This presentation will outline the technical concept of the MaCro instrument, evaluate its expected performance in terms of noise and frequency stability.

How to cite: Andert, T., Pätzold, M., Vorderobermeier, T., Tellmann, S., Plettemeier, D., Budroweit, J., Imamura, T., Ando, H., Genova, A., Hahn, M., Noguchi, K., Oschlisniok, J., Peter, K., Schäfer, W., Sanchez-Cano, B., and Leblanc, F.: The MaCro Instrument Concept for Dual-Frequency Crosslink Occultations at Mars, EPSC-DPS Joint Meeting 2025, Helsinki, Finland, 7–13 Sep 2025, EPSC-DPS2025-700, https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc-dps2025-700, 2025.

In 2018, the flight model of the Raman Laser Spectrometer (RLS) instrument for the ExoMars mission was delivered [1]. Among the critical parts of the RLS instrument was its laser unit, an INTA-led development and one of the most demanding units to comply with the technical and scientific performances required by the mission [2]. To ensure stable and robust operation in the Mars environment, the laser unit had to meet strict optical, thermal and mechanical criteria. This required an extremely precise alignment and integration process with very tight tolerances [3],[4].

The achievement of this milestone and the experience gained at RLS led to INTA's collaboration in JAXA's Martian Moons eXploration (MMX) project. DLR, INTA/University of Valladolid and the University of Tokyo collaborated to create the RAX instrument (Raman Spectrometer for MMX), which is part of this mission. The MMX rover, tasked with investigating the Martian moon Phobos, will carry the RAX instrument. The laser flight model created specifically for RAX was delivered and successfully completed all qualification phases required for its space deployment in 2022 [5].

These consecutive advancements in two consecutive planetary missions provided INTA with a solid technological foundation and an unmatched practical understanding of the capabilities and limitations of space-qualified laser systems. During the development of these projects, the difficulties of using solid-state lasers (DPSS) with second-harmonic generators (SHG) to achieve continuous green beam became evident. Although these systems offer very high beam quality and spectral efficiency, they present significant drawbacks in terms of mechanical integration and optical alignment, particularly when it comes to minimizing dimensions and mass while maintaining stable optical performance in space environments.

INTA launched ProtoRaman, a strategic research initiative that includes a line to investigate and validate alternative laser architectures, both continuous and pulsed, for space applications. Focusing on continuous emission lasers, and in order to overcome the drawbacks encountered in RLS and RAX, we are designing and evaluating the feasibility of working with a new generation of green lasers for proximity Raman spectroscopy that are reliable, compact and easy to integrate. The development of continuous wave (CW) green lasers based on visible emission gallium nitride (GaN) diode lasers [6], together with external cavity structures, is one of the main objectives of this INTA-funded project, which covers multiple research areas. By using visible-emitting diodes instead of nonlinear frequency-conversion elements, the chosen configuration aims to significantly simplify the laser head. However, this strategy entails the creation of external cavity feedback mechanisms that enable spectral narrowing, wavelength stabilization, and moderate power enhancement [7] to meet the demanding specifications of planetary proximity Raman spectroscopy, which include narrow linewidths, low optical noise, and spectral stability.

Finding enough optical power in the 515–525 nm range while preserving the beam characteristics necessary for efficient Raman excitation is one of the major challenges facing this strategy. Furthermore, since edge-emitting GaN diodes lack intrinsic mode selection, not only appropriate cavity geometries and optical coatings are needed, but also highly precise optical alignment and thermal control are required to maintain spectral purity and linewidth control. Furthermore, the overall system must be designed to withstand environmental stresses such as vibration, thermal cycling, and extended operation in low-pressure or vacuum environments. This work focuses on proof-of-concept implementations following theoretical modeling and basic design phases. These have revealed significant limitations related to the alignment sensitivity of the external cavity design, as well as the effects of mechanical tolerances and thermal drift on spectral linewidth and power stability. An extensive testing campaign is currently underway to evaluate the limitation ranges and the margins achieved by optical performance. These impacts will then be assessed in representative environments.

Keywords: Laser, Raman Spectroscopy, RLS, MMX, Planetary Exploration

References

[1] Rull, F. et al., “The Raman Laser Spectrometer for the ExoMars Rover Mission to Mars”., Astrobiology, 17 (6-7): 627-654. (2017)

[2] Rull, F. et al., "The Raman Laser Spectrometer for the ExoMars Mission: Overview and Expected Performance," Spectrochimica Acta Part A, 2020.

[3] Ribes-Pleguezuelo, P. et al. “Assembly processes comparison for a miniaturized laser used for the Exomaras European Space Agency mission” Optical Engineering 55 (11), 116107 (2016)

[4] Pérez-Canora, C. et al., "Development and Integration of the RLS Laser Unit for ExoMars," Proceedings of the European Planetary Science Congress, 2018.

[5] Bibring, J.-P. et al., “The RAX Raman Spectrometer for MMX: Scientific Goals and System Design,” International Journal of Astrobiology, 2022.

[6] Nakamura, S. et al., "Visible-Light Emitting GaN Laser Diodes: Recent Developments and Future Perspectives," Nature Photonics (2013)

[7] M. Chi et al. “Green high-power tunable external-cavity GaN diode laser at 515nm”. Optics Letters 41 (18), 4154-4157 (2016)

How to cite: Benito-Parejo, M., Rodríguez Pérez, P., Lopez Comazzi, G., Moral Inza, A., and Belenguer Dávila, T.: Developing Continuous-Wave Laser Systems for Raman Spectroscopy: Overcoming Significant Challenges, EPSC-DPS Joint Meeting 2025, Helsinki, Finland, 7–13 Sep 2025, EPSC-DPS2025-749, https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc-dps2025-749, 2025.

The Venus magnetotail is highly dynamic, much more so than was previously expected. Indeed, many scientists in this field still consider it to be relatively stable; however, our measurements by the Analyzer of Space Plasmas and Energetic Atoms (ASPERA-4) instrument, developed by the Swedish Institute of Space Physics (IRF) on Venus Express (VEX), along with many other instruments on VEX, Solar Orbiter, BepiColombo, and Parker Solar Probe, reveal its dynamic nature. While ions in the magnetotail generally flow away from the planet, ASPERA-4 frequently measured a "return flow", a global ion flow pattern in the tail directed toward Venus. The plasma process that alters the flow direction is still unknown. Magnetic reconnection and its associated phenomena were identified experimentally, but the link to the return flow is another key open question to understand convection in the Venusian magnetotail. No global numerical model has reproduced this large-scale convection in the induced magnetotail of Venus, emphasizing the lack of current knowledge about this phenomenon

The Dungey-V mission concept aims to answer the following science questions.

• How does the ion return flow impact the global energy, momentum, and mass flow at Venus?
• What is the fate of the ions in the return flows and reconnected magnetic flux?
• How does the magnetic reconnection process work with the draped field?

The Dungey-V spacecraft will be inserted into a heliocentric orbit and conduct at least 10 flybys of Venus. A flyby mission concept would prove more beneficial than an orbiter for multiple reasons:

• Controlled flybys will allow exploration of various tail regions in the magnetotail, not easily achieved with an orbiter.
• Observing dynamic processes requires advanced instrument suites capable of high-time resolution measurement (~100 ms). Such measurements will create a large data volume; however, the flyby mission provides opportunities for data downlink when the spacecraft is close to Earth, simplifying telemetry requirements.
• A flyby mission, with no orbit insertion or maintenance, requires significantly less delta-V than an orbiter. This makes it possible to use a smaller, simpler and, hence, cheaper platform.

The Dungey-V instrument suite will include ion spectrometers, electron spectrometers, a magnetometer, electromagnetic wave analyzers, and a nightglow camera, subject to future trade-off. The innovation of this mission concept is the very high time resolution for plasma measurements, never achieved before near Venus. This capability is comparable to that of state-of-the-art terrestrial magnetospheric missions (e.g., MMS), which have provided extensive insight into Earth’s magnetosphere. Given the unique nature of Venus as the only truly non-magnetized terrestrial magnetosphere, we expect similarly significant scientific insights from Dungey-V.

How to cite: Williamson, H., Futaana, Y., Barabash, S., and Rollero, U.: Flying through the Venus magnetotail: The Dungey-V mission for the ESA F3 call, EPSC-DPS Joint Meeting 2025, Helsinki, Finland, 7–13 Sep 2025, EPSC-DPS2025-927, https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc-dps2025-927, 2025.

On Earth, the mesosphere and thermosphere are sometimes called the “ignorosphere”. The same situation applied to Venus, where only a few datasets are available regarding their composition and radiative states [1-8].

The mesosphere is characterised by a decrease in temperature with altitude and is the region where the coldest atmospheric temperatures are found; on the contrary, temperatures increase in the thermosphere. On Venus, the mesosphere extends from ~70 km to ~110 km on the dayside, 140 km at the terminator, and 150 km on the nightside; the thermosphere is located just above and extends up to ~180 km.

The SOVENIR mission responds to the ESA MiniFast call issued this year, and aims to send to Venus a small satellite that would carry only one instrument, SAGE4Venus. The mission would last two Venus years. The instrument is an infrared filter wheel imager that would sound the Venus atmosphere using solar occultations. It will be sensitive at eleven narrow windows between 2 and 5 μm, and would focus on the detection of the aerosols (75-130 km) and CO₂ (72-175 km), CO (82-170 km), H₂O (75-110 km), HDO (70-88 km), SO₂ (77-90 km), SO₃ (79-91 km), OCS (72-101 km), and CS₂ (70-80 km). The temperature will be obtained from the CO₂ profiles using the hydrostatic equilibrium.

The scientific goals of the mission would be to monitor the radiative budget; monitor the 3D-wave activity and quantify the momentum exchanges between the different layers; characterize the water, carbon, and sulfur chemical cycles through observations; and study the aerosols layer above the cloud layer.

In this work, we will present the setup of the satellite and instrument, and describe the expected results from the mission.

References:

[1] von Zahn, U., et al. (1980), J. Geophys. Res.

[2] Mahieux, A., et al. (2023), Icarus

[3] Luginin, M., et al. (2024), Icarus

[4] Evdokimova, D., et al. (2021), Journal of Geophysical Research

[5] Piccialli, A., et al. (2015), Planet. Space Sci.

[6] Limaye, S., et al. (2016)

[7] Encrenaz, T., et al. (2015), Planet. Space Sci.

[8] Sonnabend, G., et al. (2012), Icarus

How to cite: Mahieux, A., Robert, S., Trompet, L., Sayanagi, K., Damadeo, R., and Hill, C.: A MiniFast mission proposal to Venus: The SOVENIR mission, EPSC-DPS Joint Meeting 2025, Helsinki, Finland, 7–13 Sep 2025, EPSC-DPS2025-891, https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc-dps2025-891, 2025.

The Saturnian System hosts a wide diversity of planetary environments, from an active ocean world to the only moon in our Solar System with a dense atmosphere and complex chemistry. These worlds are natural laboratories to test planetary evolution and the geophysical and chemical processes that shape Habitability. We present an L4-class space mission concept developed by a team of European students during the European Space Agency (ESA) Summer School Alpbach 2024 with the objective of exploring the range of possible Habitability scenarios on a single system of moons. The proposed space mission concept, SEAFARER - Surveying Environments Across the Saturnian System For hAbitability REseaRch, will have dedicated mission phases to Enceladus and Titan, allowing the exploration of different rich geochemical settings within the same space mission.  

The SEAFARER space mission consists of three specialised segments: an orbiter, a Saturn atmospheric entry probe and a planetary lander to be deployed on Kraken Mare, Titan’s largest hydrocarbon sea. The orbiter will survey the Saturnian System using a remote sensing suite, performing multiple flybys of Saturn and its moons, with close flybys of Mimas and Enceladus. During its trajectory, SEAFARER will analyse the dust environment, while monitoring the long term weather on Saturn and ring dynamics. The orbiter will investigate Mimas for the presence of a possible young subsurface ocean through a series of flybys. Following this phase, SEAFARER will raise its periapsis, conducting a series of targeted flybys of Enceladus. During these, it will sample and analyse material from the Enceladus’s south polar plume, searching for organic chemistry and test the possibility of hydrothermal activity and evidence for a biosphere. The mission will reach the final phase entering a high-inclination orbit around Titan. The orbiter will monitor the dense atmosphere of Titan including its dynamics (polar vortex, superrotation), hazes (formation, chemistry), tracking its seasonal evolution from polar to equatorial latitudes. Titan’s  surface will be mapped via radar, enabling for tracking the hydrological cycle and surface processes, such as cryovolcanism. 

The atmospheric probe will be deployed as SEAFARER entry the Saturn System. It will perform in situ studies of composition and dynamics on the Saturn’s upper atmosphere, providing insight into Saturn formation and orbital evolution, constraining planetary migration scenarios that resulted in the present-day Solar System architecture. 

The Titan lander will be deployed from a high-inclination orbit on Kraken Mare, providing the first oceanographic mission outside the Earth. The lander will act as a drifter, measuring sea currents, physical parameters such as surface temperature and sea-atmosphere energy fluxes, while providing weather information on variables such as precipitation. This mission’s segment will provide a unique insight into the hydrocarbon sea as a reservoir for the methane-based hydrological cycle. 

SEAFARER is expected to address the Saturnian System planetary science questions stemming from the legacy of the NASA/ESA/Cassini-Huygens mission. SEAFARER instrument suite will provide remote sensing and in situ measurements of a diversity of Ocean Worlds, from the possible young Mimas to the active Enceladus where complex organic chemistry can be studied. SEAFARER will determine whether Enceladus hosts a biosphere. The mission will explore the complexity of a methane-rich atmosphere and its hazes with implications for radiative transfer studies and global climate models. SEAFARER Titan lander will provide the first in situ exploration of a sea outside the Earth, rendering it a true oceanographic mission in the outer Solar System.

How to cite: Weichbold, F., Quirino, D., Bouis, A., Vaghi, S., Placke, D., Ohm, A., Wiltenburg, J., González, E., Affatato, V., Buerger, J., Quanten, B., Ntinos, C., Baudel, B., Juul, E., and Daly, C.: SEAFARER: Navigating Unknown Seas An L4-class space mission concept for the exploration of the Saturnian System developed during the ESA 2024 Summer School Alpbach , EPSC-DPS Joint Meeting 2025, Helsinki, Finland, 7–13 Sep 2025, EPSC-DPS2025-874, https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc-dps2025-874, 2025.

The PRORIS (Programma di Ricerca Spaziale di base) Strategic Project, coordinated by the Italian National Research Council (CNR) and the National Institute for Astrophysics (INAF), is a national initiative dedicated to the development of advanced methodologies and instrumentation for in situ resource prospecting in preparation for their exploration on the Moon. The goal of PRORIS is the design, integration, and validation of an integrated approach based on sensor systems and autonomous platforms for the identification and characterization of key lunar resources, with a focus on water ice, rare earth elements (REEs), and rare metals. The objective is to provide scientific and technological tools for upcoming surface missions—such as those under NASA’s Artemis program—by enabling targeted resource identification, site characterization, and operational strategies that support sustainable exploration and in situ resource utilization (ISRU).

Although PRORIS is a technology-driven project, establishing a scientific context is a foundational and mandatory step. The internal scientific driving plan within PRORIS is constituted by the “Science Node”, a working group focused on a roadmap for identifying relevant geological targets on the Moon, clarifying a mineralogical context within the selected target areas, as well as designing and simulating mission scenarios that reflect real world operational constraints in order to fulfill the exploration goals. This activity ensures that the instrument development is performed in accordance with the current state-of-the-art lunar ground-truth knowledge, and paying particular attention to the polar regions—home to cold-trapped volatiles—and to the Procellarum KREEP Terrain (K potassium, REE rare-earth elements, P phosphorus) known to host higher REE contents. Other rare chemical elements will also be considered.

The PRORIS Science Node will provide the scientific context guidelines by benefiting from the analyses of previous missions’ publicly available datasets (such as Clementine, Lunar Prospector, LRO, Chandrayaan-1, SELENE, and Chang’e). It will also provide sound constraints related to the lunar environment relevant to both scientific requests and payload deployment and operations. The dataset analyses will inform the selection of regions of interest and guide the definition of mission profiles, including potential landing sites and surface operations. By correlating orbital data with analog studies and laboratory work, PRORIS contributes to a science-based prioritization of exploration targets.

The project’s core technological developments include a multi-sensor approach for surface and subsurface characterization. A geophysical tomography suite integrates instruments such as a ground-penetrating radar (GPR), an electrical resistivity meter, a magnetic gradiometer, and a passive seismometer in order to allow the 3D reconstruction of the subsurface stratigraphic sequences down to tens of meters, aimed at detecting ice deposits. A complementary broadband microwave radiometer will survey the regolith dielectric properties and thermal gradients, improving the identification of ice-bearing layers.

Surface mineralogy surveys are planned using a suite of instruments, including a visible reflectance hyperspectral stereo imaging camera (SHY-4D), a Raman spectrometer, an UV-induced fluorescence hyperspectral imager optimized for REE detection (RESCUE), and a LIDAR-induced fluorescence spectrometer for other elements detection. A combined X- and gamma-ray spectrometer (PROGReX), and quartz crystal microbalance sensors complete the suite, enabling quantitative in situ elemental analysis.

PRORIS aims to create an instrumental and modeling ecosystem that allows a comprehensive assessment of lunar resources at the in situ scale. The technologies developed are designed to be compatible with deployment on autonomous platforms, such as future rover or lander systems, and will include edge computing capabilities and machine learning algorithms to enable real-time data processing and adaptive exploration strategies. While PRORIS does not develop rover systems directly, its instrumentation is tailored for integration with such platforms to optimize science return under mission constraints.

Although the project’s primary follow-up is technological, PRORIS relies on a strong scientific rationale to ensure that the developed solutions address relevant questions and are compatible with the physical and geological conditions of the operational scenario. This science-technology feedback loop also includes field validation activities in analogous environments, which are key to testing instrument performance and simulating surface operations.

By bridging instrumentation development with geoscientific context, PRORIS exemplifies a mission-enabling approach to lunar resource prospecting. In this frame, PRORIS Science Node provides essential inputs for designing effective payloads and exploration architectures, while the technologies developed are tailored to operate in the real conditions at high-priority lunar sites. Through this integration, PRORIS will support the advancement of planetary science and the implementation of concrete ISRU strategies, making a contribution to the global effort for a sustainable and scientifically informed presence at the Moon.

Acknowledgements: The authors gratefully acknowledge support from INAF-CNR under the ‘Programma di Ricerca Spaziale di Base (PRORIS), DM 789/2023’ initiative.

How to cite: Tosi, F., Popa, C., Esposito, F., Fiore, F., Soldovieri, F., Cremonese, G., Pedichini, F., Cambianica, P., Colaiuta, F., Čsernok, A., Ivanovski, S., Orosei, R., Porto, C., and Zambon, F.: PRORIS: Science-Driven Instrumentation for In Situ Lunar Resource Exploration, EPSC-DPS Joint Meeting 2025, Helsinki, Finland, 7–13 Sep 2025, EPSC-DPS2025-1253, https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc-dps2025-1253, 2025.

Introduction
The exploration of the Outer Solar System offers unique scientific opportunities while posing significant engineering challenges. Missions targeting Outer Solar System bodies, such as icy moons (e.g., JUICE [1]), dwarf planets (e.g., New Horizons [2]), gas giants and their ring systems (e.g., Cassini [3]), require advanced instrumentation capable of operating in harsh environments while acquiring high-resolution data across a broad spectral range.  In particular, multi-spectral imaging systems play a crucial role in characterizing the composition, morphology, and geological history of these distant targets, enabling the identification of ices, minerals, and organic compounds, the detection of surface activity, and the reconstruction of their geologic histories. Instruments, such as JANUS [4], Ralph [5] and OSIRIS NAC and WAC [6], have demonstrated the critical role of such systems in advancing our understanding of planetary processes and the potential habitability of outer Solar System bodies.
Recent progress in detector technology has enabled the design of imaging systems capable of covering a much broader spectral range within a single optical channel, i.e. from visible to short-wave infrared [7],[8]. This innovation significantly enhances compactness and reduces payload mass, which are both crucial for deep-space missions.
This work presents the preliminary design and performance evaluation of a multi-spectral imaging payload covering the 400-2400 nm spectral range, tailored to meet the scientific objectives of Outer Solar System exploration.

Design and optimization
The optical design is based on an unobstructed Three-Mirror Anastigmat (TMA), with an entrance pupil diameter (EPD) of 200 mm, a field of view (FOV) of 1.14° × 1.14°, an instantaneous field of view (IFOV) of 10 µrad, and a broad spectral range from 400 to 2400 nm. A 2k x 2k pixel CHROMA-D detector from Teledyne e2v has been selected for the instrument[9]. The 18 µm pixel size, combined with the effective focal length (EFL) of 1800 mm determines a scale factor of 1 m/pixel at a target distance of 100 km. The resulting F-number is F/# = 9. 

Table 1. Optical prescriptions.

Beyond the instrument requirements, the optical system should also comply with several geometrical constraints. Specifically, it must include an accessible intermediate focal plane to accommodate a field stop for stray light mitigation. The exit pupil should likewise be accessible to allow the integration of two filter wheels and a cold stop.
During the optimization design process, multiple configurations met the instrument's constraints. Therefore, a trade-off analysis was conducted in order to identify the most suitable configuration based on the following criteria:

• maximizing optical performance in terms of spot diagram and MTF, ensuring optimal imaging quality;
• minimizing dimensions and bulks to reduce the payload’s mass and overall size;
• maximizing the available space around the intermediate focus and exit pupil, facilitating the design and integration of the field stop, filter wheels and cold stop;
• minimizing the exit pupil diameter to reduce the required filter size, consequently optimizing the filter wheels dimensions.

Figure 1. Raytrace diagram. The colors represent different fields. Key elements, such as the mirrors, field stop, filter, and focal plane, are highlighted. The exit pupil is located at the filter position.

Performances
The system provides diffraction-limited optical performance across the entire field of view. This all-reflective configuration is an optimal solution, given the wide spectral range over which it operates. The only contribution to chromatic aberration comes from the filter. 
Figure (2) presents the spot diagram computed using Zemax – OpticStudio. The square box has the size of 2x2 pixels (36 µm x 36 µm) while the circle represents the Airy disk at 400 nm, the shortest wavelength.

Figure 2. Spot Diagram evaluated in 8 different fields. The circles in the Spot diagram represent the Airy disk at 400 nm (Airy Radius = 4.55 µm). The square box's size is 2x2 pixels (36 µm x 36 µm).

Figure (3) shows the polychromatic diffraction MTF for the whole spectral range 400-2400 nm, in the eight fields considered. The maximum spatial frequency considered is relative to the Nyquist frequency, which is: 

MTF_nyq =(2 × pixel size)^-1=(2 × 18 μm× 10³)^-1= 27.7 cycles/mm

The theoretical diffraction-limited MTF value is 0.603, whereas the designed system achieves MTF values ranging from 0.543 to 0.596, depending on the field.
The MTF is always above 54% over the whole field of view for frequencies smaller than 27.7 cycles/mm.

Figure 3. Polychromatic diffraction MTF.

To assess the expected post-alignment performance, a Monte Carlo analysis with 1000 iterations was performed, accounting for tolerances on all key parameters, including optical element positioning, figure, and surface irregularities. The quality of each perturbed optical configuration was evaluated using a performance criterion based on the RMS wavefront error, with a threshold of 70 nm (λ/14 at 1000 nm), in accordance with the Marechal criterion. The results highlight the need for particularly stringent tolerances in the alignment of the primary mirror. 

The instrument is designed to capture narrowband images across the visible 400-2400 nm spectral range, using 22 narrowband and broadband filters selected based on scientific requirements. A pair of coupled filter wheels, each holding 11 filters plus one empty slot, has been considered.

Conclusion 
This work presents the preliminary design of an unobstructed Three-Mirror Anastigmat telescope, specifically developed for a mission to the outer Solar System. The camera is a multi-band imagery through a single optical channel, covering a broad spectral range from 400 to 2400 nm. The telescope is diffraction-limited across the entire field of view and spectral range.

Acknowledgements: This activity has been developed under the ASI/UniBo-CIRI agreement n. 2024-5-HH.0.

References
[1] Grasset, O. et al. (2013),PSS 78,1–21;
[2] Weaver, H. A. et al. (2008),SSR,140,75–91;
[3] Matson, D.L. et al. (2002),SSR,104,1–58;
[4] Palumbo, P., Della Corte V., Noci G., et al. (2025),SSR,221(3),1–25;
[5] Reuter, D. C., et al. (2008),SSR,140(1–4),129–154;
[6] Keller, H. U., et al. (2007),SSR,128(1–4),433–506;
[7] Fox, N. P., et al(2020),RemoteSensing,12(15),2400;
[8] Nieke, J., et al, Proceedings SPIE,12729,1272909.
[9] https://www.teledynespaceimaging.com/en-us/Products_/Pages/infrared-hgcdte-chroma-d.aspx

How to cite: Fraccaroli, P., Lucchetti, A., Naletto, G., Pajola, M., and Penasa, L.: Design and conceptualization of a multiband camera for Outer Solar System objects, EPSC-DPS Joint Meeting 2025, Helsinki, Finland, 7–13 Sep 2025, EPSC-DPS2025-1450, https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc-dps2025-1450, 2025.

Sun sensors are designed to detect and measure both the intensity and direction of light. They play a key role in fields such as renewable energy, optics, and aerospace, where the ability to detect the angle of incidence of light has multiple applications. For example, in energy systems, the sun sensors are used in solar trackers to optimise the orientation of solar panels. In optics, they help align light beams within precision systems, and in the aerospace sector, light-angle sensors are used for attitude determination and control [1][2].

Traditionally, conventional sun sensors work by relying on geometric principles, using the ray approximation of light to detect its direction [3]. In such systems, angular sensitivity is reached by projecting light through different occlusive elements onto photodetectors. The most basic approach employs a planar photodetector whose signal varies with the cosine of the incidence angle, providing only coarse resolution. More advanced designs include four-quadrant detectors or CMOS technology with internal walls that cast angle-dependent shadows [4][5], while digital alternatives use arrays of photodetectors that are exposed through aligned apertures or slits to determine direction [6][7]. Other methods include waveguides that react to both direction and wavelength, resonant filters based on diffraction, or microstructures that selectively block or transmit light [8].

Despite their wide use, conventional light-angle sensors face multiple limitations. Several sun sensors require bulky, precisely aligned optical components. Geometric method-based sun sensors present a trade-off between angular resolution and field of view, while digital sensors frequently underuse the active area. Resonant filter-based systems are usually sensitive to certain wavelengths, which restricts their applicability to broadband light sources. Consequently, current designs often reveal trade-offs between accuracy, reliability, compactness, and cost. In this view, this work presents the analysis and development of a novel light-angle sensor that addresses the limitations of traditional sun sensors by exploiting the wave nature of light [9]. The angular dependence of the transmittance spectrum through an interferent optical layer is the basis of the proposed concept. This effect can be attained through engineered structures such as diffraction braggs, gratings, metasurfaces, or rugate filters [10-13]. This angularly modulated spectral response enables compact and high-resolution sensing without the need for external optics.

Figure 1: Representation of the measurement principle: a) angle dependence of transmission band in an interference filter, b) Transmission spectra sampled through different sensing elements featuring different coloured filters (angle-independent), and c) Representation of a device sensible to both, elevation and azimuth angles. The device would use an array of elements combining different coloured and interference filters.

Figure 1 provides a conceptual illustration of the sensor, which consists of two main components: the interference filter and coloured absorptive filters. When source light interacts with the interferent layer, a specific transmittance pattern is generated, which varies as the angle of incidence changes. This modulated light then passes through the coloured filters, each of which transmits a specific wavelength band to a corresponding photodetector. Depending on the received transmittance distribution, the photodetectors generate different signal levels and, by comparing these signals, the system can accurately determine the direction of the incoming light. Therefore, the interferent filter is the primary sensing component, as it translates the angle of incidence into a unique spectral pattern, while coloured filters isolate specific wavelength regions, allowing each photodetector to respond differently depending on the incidence angle, converting angular information into measurable spectral variations. Figure 2 illustrates this principle through a simulated unpolarised transmittance spectrum of a TiO₂-Al₂O₃ bragg-based structure, which clearly shows angle-dependent spectral features, and two commercial colour-filtered photodetectors. In particular, Figure 2a shows the transmittance as a function of wavelength and incidence angle, overlaid with the spectral response curves of red and blue filters. Based on the interaction of the generated transmittance spectrum and the sensitivity of each filter, Figure 2b displays the resulting electrical signals of the photodetectors. Finally, Figure 2c exhibits sensing response of the proposed sun sensor. In particular, this figure shows the relative change between both signals across the angular range, which reveals a monotonic response. The obtained behaviour confirms that the chosen combination of the bragg-based structure and coloured filters enables accurate, continuous, and high-resolution light-angle detection, validating the viability of the proposed sensor concept.

Figure 2: Interferential light-angle sensor response: a) Real coloured-filters response vs. Unpolarized transmittance spectrum of a particular interference filter structure, b) Response of photodetectors to the interaction between coloured filters and the incidence-angle-dependent spectrum of the interferent element, and c) Relative change revealed by the complete sensor.

In conclusion, this work presents a first insight into a new light-direction sensing approach based on wave optics. By combining an angle-sensitive interferent filter with colour-selective detection, the proposed sensor offers a promising balance of compactness, accuracy, robustness, cost-effectiveness, integration potential, and angle estimation without the need for bulky optics or complex alignment. Simulations confirm the feasibility of the concept and its potential for integration into next-generation light-direction detectors. Future work will focus on experimental validation, refinement of the filter design, and consideration of fabrication constraints for practical implementation.

Acknowledgements

This work has been supported by the ESA-OSIP through CN-4000145474 (Activity ID EISI_S_I-2024-01142) and through the project TED2021-131552B-C22 funded by European Union "NextGenerationEU".

References

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[2] P. Ortega et al., doi: 10.1109/JSEN.2010.2047104

[3] “State-of-the-Art of Small Spacecraft Technology ed. 2023”, Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California, NASA/TP-2024-10001462 (February 2024).

[4] F. J. Delgado et al., DOI: 10.1109/CDE.2013.6481358

[5] H. Wang, T. Luo, H. Song, and J. B. Christen “On-chip sensor for light direction detection” Opt. Lett. 8, 4554–4557 (2013).

[6] Patent US 7,466,002 https://patents.google.com/patent/US7466002B2/en

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[9] Patent WO2023/012390A1;PCT/ES2022/070504

[10] M. Držík, J. Šolt.s, G. Kajtár, J. Chlpík, M. Pisarčík, F. Uherek, Optics Communications 402, 109—114 (2017).

[11] L. Tutt, and J. F. Revelli , Optics Letters 33, 503—505 (2008)

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[13] P. G. Verly, Appl. Opt. 47, C172 (2008)

How to cite: Cedeño Mata, M., Arruego, I., Jiménez, J. J., Bermejo, S., and Garin, M.: Novel concept for light-direction sensors based on the wave nature of light, EPSC-DPS Joint Meeting 2025, Helsinki, Finland, 7–13 Sep 2025, EPSC-DPS2025-1643, https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc-dps2025-1643, 2025.

Introduction: Recent instrument deployments have demonstrated the power of fine-scale composition analysis. It took the PIXL instrument onboard NASA’s Perseverance rover a single elemental map to prove the cumulate nature and alteration history of rocks in the Jezero crater floor [1]. In planetary exploration, a diversity of terrains have been observed from orbit or even in situ, yet remain of uncertain origin [2]. Micro-mapping can associate chemical composition with submillimeter-scale crystals, assemblages, mesostasis, fracture and void fills, and alteration phases in igneous rocks; and likewise, mineral grains, concretions and cements in fine-grained sedimentary rocks. These are all crucial to reconstruct the processes that generated these features.

Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) is a technique that uniquely provides elemental abundances at submillimeter scales on naturally exposed rocks while removing surface dust. It can quantify the abundance of rocks major elements (Si, Fe, Mg, Al, Ca, K, Na, Ti) in addition to all light elements relevant to organics and volatiles (C, H, N, O, P, S) as well as other minor or trace elements (Li, Sr, Cr, Rb, Mn...), providing essential insights into geological processes of rocky and icy planetary surfaces.

Technology and heritage: LIBS is now widely used in the laboratory for micro-mapping, and on Mars we have a decade of experience with ChemCam [3] and now SuperCam [4] and MarsCoDe [5], which have proven the technique’s reliability and capability to analyze rocks geological investigations. It has been also test in lunar conditions [6]. However, none of these instruments were capable of fine-scale mapping. Miniaturization of LIBS systems has recently matured and now a set of handheld commercial devices ≤ 2 kg are available for  geochemical raster analyses [7]. Based on ChemCam/SuperCam heritage, we propose a new ≤ 1.5 kg instrument to perform LIBS micro-mapping.

Foreseen capabilities: µLIBS will operate at an adjustable distance of 20 to 50 cm. This shorter range, compared to ChemCam and SuperCam designs, enables significant mass reduction. Importantly, it will include a 2-axis actuated scanning mirror to enable both micro-mapping on areas < 1 cm² and analysis of multiple targets within an area below the platform without the need for a mast or gimbal (Fig. 1). It also includes a remote micro-imager and LED illumination to provide micro-textures with elemental grid overlaid. The ablated spot on target is within 50-100 µm diameter range, this tighter focus enable a lower laser pulse energy to generate signal. The µLIBS laser can also operate at up to 10 Hz, while dissipating less heat, making a typical 30x30 grid under 1 hour, with multiple laser shots on each point, efficiently removing dust from the target. These nearly 1000 grid points will help detect minor phases down to 0.1% of the rock and map their distribution. This novel capability enabling the detection of minor phases (e.g., potential zircons) which will be critical to refine current geological models based on major elements and phases only.

Ongoing development: The instrument prototype is currently being assembled at CNES with the production and delivery of most subsystems underway from IRAP, LANL, DLR and industry partners. The goal of this prototype is to verify the end-to-end performances, track the mass budget with a maximum allowance of 1.5 kg in our Mars configuration, and upgrade the TRL level close to 6 with dedicated tests in early 2026. While integration on the Mars Science Helicopter mission concept [8] implies a strict requirement on instrument mass, µLIBS technology can be adapted to in situ destinations including the Moon, icy moons and small bodies to fit other missions mass budget and accommodations (Fig. 1).

Conclusions: µLIBS can provide micro-scale elemental maps with a science return similar to contact instruments for lower cost, as it can operate remotely from a mobile platform undercarriage with no need for arm deployment nor platform turret. It is overall low risk (heritage-based), low mass, and low cost with significant improvements in terms of accuracy and rapidity.

References : [1] Liu Y. et al. (2022) Science 377, 1513–1519. [2](2023) Origins, Worlds, and Life: A Decadal Strategy for Planetary Science and Astrobiology 2023-2032. [3] Maurice S. et al. (2016) J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 31, 863–889. [4] Wiens R. C. et al. (2022) Science Advances 8, eabo3399. [5] Xu W. et al. (2021) Space Sci Rev 217, 64. [6] Lasue J. et al. (2012) J. Geophys. Res. 117, E01002. [7] Senesi G. S. et al. (2021) Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy 175, 106013. [8] Fraeman A. A. et al. (2024) Tenth International Conference on Mars, abstract #3350.

Figure 1: µLIBS prototype design with compact opto-electronic assembly fits within a 10x15x20 cm envelope (left). Workspace targeting and micro-mapping with 30x30 points grid on target (red annotation, center). Examples of µLIBS accommodation onboard ~30 kg platforms (right). Background images: Curiosity rover and Apollo 17.

How to cite: Rapin, W. and the microLIBS team: MicroLIBS: DEVELOPING A LIGHTWEIGHT ELEMENTAL MICRO-MAPPER FOR IN SITU EXPLORATION, EPSC-DPS Joint Meeting 2025, Helsinki, Finland, 7–13 Sep 2025, EPSC-DPS2025-1829, https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc-dps2025-1829, 2025.